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How many clauses are there?
Which is the main clause?
Which is the subordinate clause?
Which is the subordinator?
The subordinate clause gives some details to the main clause. The detailed information is usually time or condition in the adverbial clause. In this sentence, does this subordinate clause tell us time or condition? (Condition). Then which word introduces a condition? (If) "If" introduces a condition that may or may or may not happen in the future. It is called an if-conditional clause. This condition is real in a sense that the condition can actually happen.
What does the main clause do? (It tells us the result if the condition happens. It is called a result clause.)
Now, tense. Which is the verb in the subordinate clause?
Which tense is the verb? (It takes simple present tense.)
Which is the verb in the main clause?
Which tense is the verb? (It takes future tense.)
What does the comma after the if-clause do? (Pause)

Clauses in English Grammar

Look at the sentences below.
When I heard the disturbance, I dropped the files that I had been examining, then ran out into the corridor.
I let the door slip from my fingers and it closed behind me.

In the first sentence it appears that there are as many as four separate segments which look like partial sentences connected to each other in different ways:
When I heard the disturbance,
I dropped the files
that I had been examining,
then ran out into the corridor.

In the second sentence there are two segments:
I let the door slip from my fingers
and it closed behind me.

We can call these segments clauses. Many sentences are short - they contain only one segment or clause. These single-clause units are called simple sentences. Examples of simple sentences might include:
She has already read this book.
The policeman asked me for some identification.
The postman didn't arrive.
No one knew the way.
Why did he do it?
Where did you last see your father?
Have you put the cat out?
Did they finish painting the house?

As you can see, it is not possible to divide any of these up into smaller segments that look like sentences. However, many sentences, both in the spoken and the written language, are often longer and more complicated than this simple type; such sentences are called multiple sentences. Sentence 2 (above) is an instance of a sentence which can be broken down into smaller segments or clauses.

Main clauses

Look at the three multiple sentences below:

I gave him my address, but he didn't contact me.
We could go to the cinema or we could stay at home.

The sentences can be divided into clauses as follows, and the main clauses are in bold.
I gave him my address,
(but) he didn't contact me.
We could go to the cinema
(or) we could stay at home.

In all three sentences each of the main clauses (those without the connecting words and, but and or) can stand on its own as an acceptable sentence - they all act as complete sense units in their own right. Clauses which can stand on their own in this way and have equal importance are referred to as main clauses; this will, of course, also include simple sentences, which contain only one clause. Sentences which are constructed using the linking words and, but, or and the few words which can be used in the same way, like also, too, yet, are called compound sentences. These linking words for compound sentences are known as coordinators since they serve to connect main clauses on an equal footing. Subordinate clauses

The construction of compound sentences is essentially quite straightforward since we only have to take two or more simple sentences and insert a basic coordinatingword like and, but and or. There are, however many more ways in which clauses can be connected to each other to form longer sentences. The following are just a few examples of how clauses can be conjoined. The main clauses are in bold.

We're going to have to take the train because the car's broken down.
If you heat water, it boils.
Although she's the best in the class, she did badly in the exams.
While I'm out, could you tidy up a bit?

If you examine the sentences carefully, you will notice that only one of the clauses in each sentence can stand alone as a complete idea; these are shown in bold. The remaining clause in each sentence feels unfinished when used on its own. For example a native speaker would find the sense of 'although she's the best in the class' to be incomplete without a second clause expressing an unexpected contrast, in this case 'she did badly in the exams'. The clause which can stand alone is called a main clause, while the clause which depends on the main clause is said to be subordinate.

The range of linking words used with subordinate clauses is much wider than with the linkers in compound sentences. A short list would include:

Time : after, before, as soon as, while, when, as
Cause : because, since, as,
Condition : if, provided that, as long as, unless
Concession : although, though, even though
Relative : which, who, that, where, whose

These different types of sentence structure will be examined in more detail in other sections of this guide. Sentences which are made up of clauses joined in this way are known as complex sentences. Here is an example:

When I heard the disturbance,
I dropped the files
that I had been examining,
then ran out into the corridor.

The main clause here is b since this can be used on its own as a complete sense unit.

Note that every sentence needs a subject telling us who or what is doing the action. In these sentences the subject is in bold:
The man was clearly in pain.
The child was sitting beside the door of my old car.
The old olive tree was still producing wonderful olives.
The man wearing the old red hat was walking slowly down the road.

One feature of the levels of sentence and clause is that they both need to include a person(s) or thing(s) carrying out some sort of action. The word denoting the action in a sentence or clause is called a verb, while the person or thing performing the action is typically a noun acting as the subject. The presence of this structure subject + verb, indicates that the collection of words is either a sentence or a clause; without this structure, a string of words is referred to as a phrase.
Adjective Clause
Adverb Clause
Noun Clause
Examples
If clause
Main clause
Noun Clause
Noun Clause
Relative Clause
Relative Clause
Relative Clause
cClassification
Adjective Clause

Clauses and Phrases


To understand punctuation, it is helpful to understand the difference between a phrase and a clause.

I. A phrase is a collection of words that may have nouns or verbals, but it does not have a subject doing a verb. The following are examples of phrases:

  • leaving behind the dog
  • smashing into a fence
  • before the first test
  • after the devastation
  • between ignorance and intelligence
  • broken into thousands of pieces
  • because of her glittering smile

In these examples above, you will find nouns (dog, fence, test, devastation, ignorance, intelligence, thousands, pieces). You also have some verbals (leaving, smashing), but in no case is the noun functioning as a subject doing a predicate verb. They are all phrases.

II. A clause is a collection of words that has a subject that is actively doing a verb. The following are examples of clauses:

  • since she laughs at diffident men
  • I despise individuals of low character
  • when the saints go marching in
  • Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon
  • because she smiled at him.

In the examples above, we find either a noun or a pronoun that is a subject (bold-print and red) attached to a predicate verb (underlined and purple) in each case:

  • since she laughs at diffident men
  • I despise individuals of low character
  • when the saints go marching in
  • Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon
  • because she smiled at him

III. If the clause could stand by itself, and form a complete sentence with punctuation, we call the clause an independent clause. The following are independent clauses:

  • I despise individuals of low character
  • Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon

We could easily turn independent clauses into complete sentences by adding appropriate punctuation marks. We might say, "I despise individuals of low character." Or we might write, "Obediah Simpson is uglier than a rabid racoon!" We call them independent because these types of clauses can stand independently by themselves, without any extra words attached, and be complete sentences.

IV. Dependent clauses have a subject doing a verb, but they have a subordinate conjunction placed in front of the clause. That subordinate conjunction means that the clause can't stand independently by itself and become a complete sentence. Instead, the dependent clause is dependent upon another clause--it can't make a complete sentence by itself, even though it has a subject doing a verb. Here are some examples of dependent clauses:

  • since she laughs at diffident men
  • when the saints go marching in
  • because she smiled at him

These clauses simply do not form complete thoughts or sentences by themselves. Those subordinate conjunctions--since, when, and because--cause the listener to expect some extra material. The thought is incomplete. If you walked up to a friend in the dorms and said, "since she laughs at diffident men," and then walked away without adding an independent clause, the friend would be completely baffled.

It's important to understand the difference between phrases, dependent clauses, and independent clauses because many punctuation marks--such as commas, semicolons, and colons, require one or the other. Click here to move to subordinate conjunctions to learn more.
The Clause

Clauses come in four types: main [or independent], subordinate [or dependent], adjective [or relative], and noun. Every clause has at least a subject and a verb.

What is a clause?

A clause is a part of a sentence. There are two main types: independent (main clauses), dependent (subordinate clauses).

Independent Clauses

An independent clause is a complete sentence; it contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought in both context and meaning.

For example: The door opened.

Independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating conjunction to form complex or compound sentences.

and

but

 for

or

 nor

so
yet    

 

For example: Take two independent clauses and join them together with the conjunction and: " The door opened." "The man walked in." = The door opened and the man walked in.

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Dependent Clauses

A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a sentence; it contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. They can make sense on their own, but, they are dependent on the rest of the sentence for context and meaning. They are usually joined to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.

Dependent clauses often begin with a a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun (see below) that makes the clause unable to stand alone.

after although as because
before even if even though if
in order that

once

provided that

rather than

since

so that

than

that

though

 unless

until

when

whenever

where

whereas

wherever

whether

while

 why  
Relative Pronouns
that

which

 whichever

who

 whoever

whom
whose whosever whomever

For example:

The door opened because the man pushed it.

Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or adjectival.

A nominal clause (noun clause) functions like a noun or noun phrase. It is a group of words containing a subject and a finite verb of its own and contains one of the following: that | if | whether

For example:

  • I wondered whether the homework was necessary.

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Noun clauses answer questions like "who(m)?" or "what?"

An adverbial clause (adverb clause) is a word or expression in the sentence that functions as an adverb; that is, it tells you something about how the action in the verb was done. An adverbial clause is separated from the other clauses by any of the following subordinating conjunctions: after | although | as | because | before | if | since | that | though | till | unless | until | when | where | while

For example:

  • They will visit you before they go to the airport.

Adverbial clauses can also be placed before the main clause without changing the meaning.

For example:

  • Before they go to the airport, they will visit you.

!Note - When an adverb clause introduces the sentence (as this one does), it is set off with a comma.

Adverb clauses answer questions like "when?", "where?", "why?"

An adjectival clause (adjective clause or relative clause) does the work of an adjective and describes a noun, it's usually introduced by a relative pronoun: who | whom | whose | that | which

For example:

  • I went to the show that was very popular.

This kind of clause is used to provide extra information about the noun it follows. This can be to define something (a defining clause), or provide unnecessary, but interesting, added information (a non-defining clause).

For example:

  • The car that is parked in front of the gates will be towed away. (Defining relative clause.)

Information contained in the defining relative clause is absolutely essential in order for us to be able to identify the car in question.

  • My dog, who is grey and white, chased the postman. ( Non-defining relative clause)

A non-defining relative clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. If you take away the non-defining clause the basic meaning of the sentence remains intact.

For example:

  • My dog chased the postman.

Adjective clauses answer questions like "which?" or "what kind of?"

Summary

An adjective clause functions as an adjective (modifies a noun or pronoun); an adverb clause functions as an adverb (describes a verb, adjective or other adverb); a noun clause is used as a noun (subject of a verb, direct object, indirect object, predicate nominative or object of the preposition).

!Note - The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a phrase does not contain a finite verb.

Relative Clauses

A relative clause follows the noun it modifies. It is generally indicated by a relative pronoun at the start of the clause, although sometimes you can tell simply by word order. The choice of relative pronoun, or choice to omit one, can be affected by the following:-

Human or Non-human?

We make a distinction between an antecedent that is a human — who(m) — and an antecedent which is a non-human — which.

Who(m) is used when the antecedent is a person.
That is used to refer to either a person or thing.
Which is used to refer to anything exept a person.

  • I met a man and a woman yesterday. The woman, who had long blonde hair, was very pretty.
  • The man she was with, was the man that / who won the race.
  • The race was the one that I lost.
  • The man, to whom the winnings were given, was with the woman who was very pretty.

!Note - Whom is not used much in spoken English.

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Restrictive or Non-restrictive?

Restrictive relative clauses are sometimes called defining relative clauses, or identifying relative clauses. Similarly, non-restrictive relative clauses are called non-defining or non-identifying relative clauses.

In English a non-restrictive relative clause is preceded by a pause in speech or a comma in writing, unlike a restrictive clause.

For example:-

The builder, who erects very fine houses, will make a large profit.
This example, with commas, contains a non-restrictive relative clause. It refers to a specific builder, and assumes we know which builder is intended. It tells us firstly about his houses, then about his profits.

The builder who erects very fine houses will make a large profit.
This second example uses a restrictive relative clause. Without the commas, the sentence states that any builder who builds such houses will make a profit.

    Restrictive Non-restrictive
    Human Nonhuman Human Nonhuman
    Subject who, that which, that who which
    Object who, whom, that, Ø which, that, Ø who, whom which
    After preposition whom which whom which

    Possessive

    		 whose, of whom whose, of which whose, of whom whose, of which

     

The Clause

Recognize a clause when you see one.

Clauses come in four types: main [or independent], subordinate [or dependent], adjective [or relative], and noun. Every clause has at least a subject and a verb. Other characteristics will help you distinguish one type of clause from another.

Main Clauses

Every main clause will follow this pattern:

subject + verb = complete thought.

Here are some examples:

Lazy students whine.

Students = subject; whine = verb.

Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.

My dog loves pizza crusts.

Dog = subject; loves = verb.

The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main clause. Otherwise, you have a fragment, a major error.

Subordinate Clauses

A subordinate clause will follow this pattern:

subordinate conjunction + subject + verb = incomplete thought.

Here are some examples:

Whenever lazy students whine

Whenever = subordinate conjunction; students = subject; whine = verb.

As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter

As = subordinate conjunction; cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.

Because my dog loves pizza crusts

Because = subordinate conjunction; dog = subject; loves = verb.

The important point to remember about subordinate clauses is that they can never stand alone as complete sentences. To complete the thought, you must attach each subordinate clause to a main clause. Generally, the punctuation looks like this:

main clause + Ø + subordinate clause.

subordinate clause + , + main clause.

Check out these revisions to the subordinate clauses above:

Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Russell throws chalk erasers at their heads.

Anthony ran for the paper towels as cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman.

Relative Clauses

A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun [such as who, whom, whose, which, or that] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. The patterns look like these:

relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb = incomplete thought.

relative pronoun as subject + verb = incomplete thought.

Here are some examples:

Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser

Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb.

Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm

Where = relative adverb; he = subject; chews, drools = verbs.

That had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter

That = relative pronoun; had spilled, splashed = verbs.

Who loves pizza crusts

Who = relative pronoun; loves = verb.

Like subordinate clauses, relative clauses cannot stand alone as complete sentences. You must connect them to main clauses to finish the thought. Look at these revisions of the relative clauses above:

The lazy students whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser soon learned to keep their complaints to themselves.

My dog Floyd, who loves pizza crusts, eats them under the kitchen table, where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm.

Anthony ran to get paper towels for the cola that had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Punctuating relative clauses can be tricky. You have to decide if the relative clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas accordingly.

Essential relative clauses do not require commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the information it provides. Look at this example:

A dog that eats too much pizza will soon develop pepperoni breath.

Dog is nonspecific. To know which dog we are talking about, we must have the information in the relative clause. Thus, the relative clause is essential and requires no commas.

If, however, we revise dog and choose more specific words instead, the relative clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this revision:

My dog Floyd, who eats too much pizza, has developed pepperoni breath.

Noun Clauses

Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause. Look at this example:

You really do not want to know the ingredients in Aunt Nancy's stew.

Ingredients = noun.

If we replace the noun ingredients with a clause, we have a noun clause:

You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew.

What Aunt Nancy adds to her stew = noun clause.