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Acre An acre is the traditional unit of measure and is a square approximately 209 feet per side (=4840 sq. yds.). The amount one man and two oxen could plough in a day. It is gradually being replaced by the metric unit the Hectare. Adjuvant A substance other than water, when mixed in the spray mixture is intended to enhance the effectiveness of a pesticide. Agribusiness A progression from farming that combines agriculture and business. Large areas of land and large numbers of animals may be involved but with less interest in the environment and animal welfare than traditional family farms. Agronomist Qualified person who inspects crops and advises growers on agronomy, varieties, herbicides etc. Air (Seed) Drill A seed drill where air supplied by a fan is used as the medium to transport the seed from the metering unit (Picture) to the coulters.(Picture) Ammonium nitrate One of the main sources of artificial nitrogen fertiliser. Generally it is supplied as a prill and contains around one third of it's weight as 'nitrogen'. Anthrax A serious, sometimes fatal disease of animals and humans caused by a soil borne bacteria. Aphids Small insects that feed by sucking the sap from plants. They are the carriers of many viruses that affect a range of plants and crops. Apparent Temperature Apparent temperature is the general term for the perceived outdoor temperature, caused by the combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) Species of large deciduous tree native to Europe which likes heavy alkaline loams. Being affected by Ash Dieback in the UK. (2013) Auger Long tubular pieces of equipment to move grain. Augers have a spiral screw inside an outer tube which pushes the grain from the lower end to the top end. They are usually powered by electric motors and vary in diameter from 75mm up to 300mm (Picture) gal/Machinery/madrier_disch.jpg Auto-steer Using a GPS position to control the machine's steering so that great accuracy can be achieved. Bale A compacted and bound bundle of straw, hay silage etc. May be square or round varying in size from 30 kg to 1000kg. Baler Implement which picks up swaths of straw or hay and compresses it into a compact rectangular or cylidrical bale. When the desired size is reached it is automatically secured with twine or net wrapping. bar SI measure of pressure composed of 1000 millibar. Equal to around 14.2 lbs/sq.inch. Barley A cereal crop still popular in the UK although the acreage has reduced recently. It is identified by it's 'awns' which are covered in tiny barbs and cling to clothing. Barley is used as animal feed or by the brewing industry. Batch drier A machine which dries grains by passing air (possibly heated by gas or oil) through a 'batch' and when dry will empty and refill itself with the next batch. Bean Field beans are normally grown as a high protein animal feed but some are for human consumption. They are generally allowed to ripen and dry which permits them to be harvested by combine. (Picture) Beaufort (Scale) A scale of wind force created in 1805 and based on the effects wind had on the sea surface and sailing ships rigging. Ranges from Force 0 = calm to Force 12 = Hurricane. (Detail here) Beetle An insect with two pairs of wings, the front pair are hardened to cover the rear pair when folded. Most are beneficial and vary in size from under 1mm to over 60 mm. There are almost 4000 species in the UK. Big Bags Large generally polypropolene bags used for grain feed or fertiliser. Normally 500kg but some fertiliser is now in 600kg bags. Stockfeed may be supplied in 1000kg bags.(Picture) Bindweed A common weed with a conspicuous white flower which can have severe effects on crop yields if unchecked. It is generally seen growing through hedges and on roadsides. Bio-diesel Automotive fuel manufactured primarily from oil seed rape (Canola) blended with diesel to reduce build up of atmospheric CO2. Blackface A particularly stupid variety of sheep with a rough long fleece and relatively light body weight but very hardy. Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) A hedging bush with sharp thorns more notable for it's white flowers in spring and it's fruit - the sloe. It is less hardy than hawthorn so tends to be used in more sheltered locations. Boar An entire male pig. Border Leicester Ususally used as a sire crossed with other breeds to produce lambs for meat. Bramble A sprawling, prickly shrub well known for it's black berries which can be made into jams and desserts. Known as the blackberry in southern England. Broiler A chicken raised for meat production, generally in large intensive buildings. Brome (Barren) (Bromus Sterilis) A grass weed which is commonly found in hedge bottoms but can be difficult to control if it invades a crop. Recognisable by it's green/purple drooping flowers and seed heads.(Picture) Bullock A castrated bull. Burn A term used in northern England and Scotland for a stream. Bushel An old volume measure of cereals. One bushel of wheat weighed approximately 63 lbs, barley 56lbs, .and oats 42lbs. Buttercup A common yellow flower (Ranunculus) generally found in wetter parts of the farm. It is common on undrained permanent pasture where it can become invasive.(Picture) Canola In agriculture, canola is the name given to certain varieties rapeseed (particularly in North America)plants or the oil produced from those varieties. Capping Soils cap when a fine seedbed is sown and firmed but heavy rainfall follows. This causes the soil surface to form a hard layer when it dries out which in turn can prevent the emergence of shoots from the sown seeds. Caryopsis The term used to describe the simple fruit produced by grasses, including cereals. Catch-crop This is a quick growing crop, opportunistically grown for livestock feed etc. If for example winter barley was combined in July a fodder crop could be quickly sown and eaten during the winter allowing a spring crop to be drilled normally. Cattle Passport A document recording identification, movement and other details for a specific bovine animal. Celcius A temperature scale becoming universal where melting ice = 0° and boiling water =100° The alternative scale is Fahrenheit. A rough conversion is: °C * 1.8 + 32 = °F Chain A measure of length equal to 22 yards. or 20.1 metres. Cheviot A hardy breed named after the range of hills it originates from in northern England. It tends to be short legged but produces good quality meat. Chickweed An omnipresent weed growing almost anywhere in the UK. It is low growing and has tiny white flowers which produce seed almost all year round. Clamp A large area with walls possibly of timber but normally concrete which is used to store Silage. The clamp is filled with chopped grass from a forage harvester and compacted by tractor or handler and then sealed by means of a polythene membrane. Most moderns clamps are roofed. Clean grazing Pasture free from animal parasites, normally by resting it for one or more years. Cleavers (Galium aparine)A scrambling weed with 'sticky' hairy seeds and leaves. A problem weed which can smother crops and is generally seen in hedgerows. Clover (Trifolium) A leguminous, nitrogen fixing plant with red or white flowers. Used extensively as a fodder crop or mixed with grass. It is regularly used as a cover crop. CO2 Carbon dioxide. A gas linked to global warming emitted primarily by fossil fuels. Growing crops absorb CO2 and produce oxygen. Colorado Beetle A serious pest of potatoes, but very rarely seen in the fields of the UK. Most now arrive on imported foodstuffs. Colostrum The antibody-rich first milk produced by the mother immediately before and for a limited time after giving birth. Combine Combine (Harvester) Normally a self propelled machine which cuts, thrashes and separates grain from straw which it leaves either swathed or chopped. Compaction When soil is compressed naturally or otherwise to the extent that water cannot drain away or plant roots penetrate. Subsoiling is carried out to alleviate this. Compound Compound (Fertiliser) is one which contains more than one nutrient (nitrogen potash phosphorus sulphur)as opposed to a 'straight'(Picture). Coppice Cutting a broad leaved tree to a stump to encourage many fresh straight shoots which can be used for walking sticks, hurdles etc. Couch Grass (Elymus repens) Very common in crops and grassland, couch reproduces by rhizomes as well as seed making it a constant problem. Coulter That part of a seed drill which actually works in the soil to place and cover the seed. They may be of the disc type or shoe type. Couped (Cowped?) A dialect word for a sheep which has rolled on it's back and because of fleece or terrain cannot get back on it's feet. Court Court or courtings are yards, partally or totally covered to overwinter livestock in. Crab Apple (Malus Sylvestris) Common in hedges and occasionally as a small tree it has small apple shaped sour fruits. Cranefly Commonly known as 'daddy longlegs'.The larva of which is the leatherjacket can cause damage to grassland as it lives below ground for up to nine months. Crawler Commonly used to describe a track laying tractor. Traditionally tracks were steel but modern tractors have rubber tracks. Creep A creep is a shelter for young lambs that ewes are not able to enter. Feeding is supplied inside to encourage the lambs to take up solid food.(Picture) Croft A small (<50 acres) subsistence farm found in the highlands of Scotland. Most crofters have secondary jobs as a living cannot generally be made today. Crush A (cattle) crush is a frame used to hold a large animal stationary whilst administering medications etc. Cultivation Normally shallow tillage operations to improve, drainage, water conservation, aeration, or to control weeds. Dagging Removing soiled fleece from the rear of sheep. This prevents contamination of the fleece at clipping time. Dessicate To dry out. In a cropping sense, dessication usually means to apply a total herbicide to speed up the ripening and drying process. Dipping Dipping (sheep) is used to control external parasites such as blowfly and ticks. The sheep is immersed in a bath of water with a persistant insecticide mixed in. Direct Drilling Placing seed into soil which has not been cultivated by using a heavier than normal seed drill which is able to penetrate in hard/dry conditions. Also known as No-till drilling. Ditch A water channel dug to assist drainage or to mark a boundary. In this part of the world most are bordered by a hedge. They may collect and remove water from many drains Draft The effort required to pull an implement through the soil. Also the control on a modern tractor which keeps this load constant by raising or lowering the implement. Drain In the field sense a drain is a clay or plastic porous pipe buried at around 1 metre deep and covered with approximately 300mm gravel to collect and remove water from farmland. Draw To make a draw with livestock is to sort fat from thin, ewes from tups, etc. Drawing lambs for market would be to select those with correct weight and conformation. Drill (seed) An implement used to place an exact amount of seed at a desired depth. This can be from 3kg/ha for canola to 250kg/ha for wheat. Dykeback A local term used to denote the area round the outside of a field which never gets full sun or wind because of the hedge or wall (dyke). Earthworm Estimates say that up to 7.5 million earthworms live in every hectare of ground. They are essential to the health of the soil, they draw organic matter down, bring subsoil up and their burrows assist drainage and aeration. Elder A quick growing shrub (Sambucus) which has massses of white flowers in summer which can be used for making wine and black berries in autumn which are used for pies jams etc. Elm A slow growing hardwood tree (Ulmus) once extremely common in hedgerows and woods but suffered from Dutch Elm Disease in the late 20th century. Slowly being replanted by Wych Elm which is resistant to this disease. Ergot A disease of cereal ears caused by a fungus. Seeds are replaced by black poisonous spore producing bodies. It is not common nowadays due to high seed standards. Erosion A natural process whereby rocks, soil and other deposits are worn away by the action of water, ice, or wind. Evapotranspiration The sum of evaporation and plant transpiration of water from the Earth's land surface to atmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such as the soil, leaf surfaces and waterbodies. Transpiration accounts for the movement of water within a plant and the subsequent loss to atmosphere. Ewe A female sheep, generally after her first lambing. Fahrenheit The temperature scale on which melting ice = 32° and boiling water = 212° The alternative is Celcius. A rough conversion is: °F - 32 / 1.8 = °C Fallow Land left without a crop for one or more years. A very basic way to improve the soil fertility. Fertiliser Generally accepted as 'artificial' nutrients supplied to the soil to replace soil reserves taken off in crops. The major nutrients are Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. Field Capacity The point at which soil becomes saturated and cannot hold more rainfall. If drainage is good, this should rarely occur but if it is poor runoff and erosionmay occur. Finishing The feeding of cattle or sheep at a higher rate of growth which increases muscle on the animal and makes it acceptable for slaughter. Flea Beetle Small beetle with enlarged rear legs which allow it to jump large distances. The larvae can be a problem in brassica crops such as canola where they develop inside the stems. Fleece Shearing a sheep so that it's wool is removed intact in one piece, results in a fleece. Fluke A (Liver fluke) parasitic flatworm with a complex lifecycle involving snails and sheep/cattle. Foot and Mouth (Disease) A viral disease of cloven hoofed animals (sheep, cattle, pigs etc) which is easily spread. The UK is normally free of this disease but the last imported infection in 2001 was seriously mismanaged by the government. Foot Rot An anerobic bacterial disease of sheep's feet exacerbated by wet weather or muddy fields. Some breeds are more susceptible than others. Forage Leafy crops that are (intentionally) grazed by livestock. Forage Harvester A machine powered by a tractor or self propelled which lifts a swath of wilted grass and chops it finely before delivering it to a following trailer. It is ensiled in a clamp Ford A natural or man made shallow part of a river or stream to allow crossing. Free range A system of poultry keeping in which hens are allowed to range over a large area of open land. The definition may vary as Agribusiness takes over. Frog Hopper An insect resembling a small frog which is best known for it's larva producing 'cuckoo spit' on plants. Fungicide A chemical (natural or synthetic )used to control or destroy fungi in growing crop. If left untreated diseases like mildew (Powdery) can have a devastating effect on crops. Furlong A measure of length equal to 10 chains or 220 yards. (201.1 metres) Fusarium A disease which infects the plants at a very early age and may kill seedlings, or at the ripening stage where ear development is affected and grain quality reduced. Gimmer A female sheep over a year old which may or may not have had lambs. Glyphosate A total translocated herbicide. Commonly used in cleaning stubbles or grassland destruction. Roundup is the best known trade name. GM Genetically Modified - plants which have their structure modified by introducing genes from another species of plant or animal. None are grown commercially in the UK, yet. GPS In farming terms, Global Positioning System, using a network of satellites which give the operator's position to within 150mm (6 inches) or with correction to 20mm (0.8 inch), Used for Yield Mapping, Auto-steer and Variable rate application. Grainstore Purpose built structure designed to store grain in without risk of damage due to moisture, fungi, vermin etc. Temperature and humidity may be monitored and controlled. Groundsel A 'nuisance' weed which can be found anywhere. Popular for feeding cage birds and rabbits. Growth Stage A decimal system to describe the progress of a plant through the season. GS 0 is a dry seed, GS 50 is flowering, GS 90 is ripening. Hand A measurement used to indicate the height of a horse, consisting of 4 inches (101mm). Harrow A shallow working trailed implement used to break down clods. Disc harrows may be used for primary cultivation whereas tined harrows are used pre or post sowing. Harvest Gathering a crop from the field when it is ripe. Hawthorn A spring-flowering thorny shrub(Crataegus) commonly used to make stockproof hedges. If untrimmed will grow into a small tree. Hay Grass that is cut and allowed to dry naturally in fields before being baled. This is stored and fed to livestock over the winter. It is less used now due to the unreliablility of the weather and relatively low feed value. Headland The area of a field adjacent to a fence or hedge where machinery turns. This is normally cultivated last to avoid compaction in the soil. Hectare Measurment of area consisting of 10,000 sq. metres. Equal to roughly 2.47 acres. Hedge A field boundary composed of shrubs such as hawthorn or blackthorn dense enough to keep livestock in the field and provide shelter. Hedges require regular maintenance to prevent them becoming sparse and less effective. Hefted A hefted flock is one which by instinct remains on the same area. (e.g. one hill) Hefted flocks culled by MAFF in the foot and mouth 'epidemic' were irreplacable. Heifer A young female cow of over 12 months old, which may or may not have had a calf. Herbicide A substance used to control weeds. May be selective or total. Glyphosate (Roundup) is a total herbicide, Cheetah S (Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl) will kill only wild oats in cereals and some other crops. Hirsel A scottish term for a flock of sheep on a farm(generally on a hill) which are looked after by one shepherd. Traditionally this was 400-600 ewes. Hogg A young sheep from the time it is weaned to its first shearing. Humus The final stage in the decomposition of soil organic matter. It is essential in maintaining soil structure. Hundredweight Measure of weight equal to 112 lbs. or 1/20th of a ton. (2240 lbs) Now is approximated to, but does not equal 50 kg. Hurdle A small portable gate made of wattle but nowadays of aluminium or steel. Commonly used to make temporay sheep pens in buildings or outlying fields. Insecticide A pesticide used to control unwanted insects either in a growing crop or in grain stores and mills. Irrigation Supplying the water needs of growing crops by gravity or pumped systems in areas where natural precipitation is insufficient. Lactation The period after birth in which the mother produces milk for the offspring. Ladybird A colourfull small beetle whose larvae prey on aphids (greenfly)making them welcome on all farms. Lambing The period of the year when the flock is synchronised to give birth in an interval of a few weeks. The process of an individual ewe giving birth. Leaching The loss of nutrients, pesticides, lime, or other elements of the soil by the action of water as it percoolates through the soil profile. Leaf Miner The larvae of certain moths and flies which live in the laminations of a leaf. They leave lighter coloured patches or trails as they eat the tissue. Legume Podded plants such as clover, lentils, peas & beans which encourage nitrogen fixing bacteria on their root nodules. This nitrogen is available as fertiliser when the plant dies. LERAP (Local Environmental Risk Assessment Plan) A set of regulations which control use of certain pesticides adjacent to watercourses. Records must be kept when a 'Lerap' applies to any operation. Ley Field sown with grass for one or more years. Short term leys usually yield heavier crops than longer leys due to the grass varieties used. They may be noted as a three year ley, 5 year ley etc. Licks Minerals, vitamins and trace elements may be given to livestock via enhanced salt blocks. Animals lick the blocks for their taste and ingest the essential ingredients. Lifters Attachments for the header of a combine which assist in combining a lodged crop by easing it off the ground. Lime Generally ground limestone which is used to neutralize soil acidity. Essential for crop growth and application rates average 5000kg/ha. Linkage (three point) The lift system universally used on tractors to attach and lift machinery such as ploughs, cultivators, drills etc. consisting of two lower powered lift arms and a fixed top central link. Lodging The term used to describe a crop which is falling over due to bad weather, (wind/rain) disease, or an inherent varietal weakness. Severe lodging makes harvesting extremely difficult due to moisture being trapped in the closely packed stems and lack of airflow. MAFF Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food Monolithic government department that changed it's name to DEFRA after the Foot & Mouth fiasco. Malting The process of taking barley, steeping it in water, germinating it and then drying it. The dried product is malt and has many uses in food manufacturing and alchohol production. Mangold Large, red or gold coloured root vegetable resembling a elongated turnip. Used as animal feed but a relatively low value food source. Manure A mixture of bedding straw and animal dung which is lifted out of sheds and stored in heaps (middens) for a period to decompose before being spread on the land. Provides a useful amount of organic matter and valuable nutrients. Marker A device fitted to many soil working implements to allow the tractor driver to return down the field at an exact distance from the previous bout by following a groove in the soil made with a disc or tine. The mark may be followed by the wheel or the centre of the tractor. Mayweed (Matricaria) A common difficult to control daisy like weed. Meadow Grass An annual grass which is a pernicious weed in cereal crops. Metering (Seed) A seed metering unit on a seed drill controls the flow of seed in relation to ground speed so that exactly the correct weight/area is sown. Mildew (Powdery) A common disease of most plants but of significance in cereals. White fluffy pustules appear on leaf or stem if rubbed off a brown stain is revealed. May spread to the ear if unchecked. MinTill Minimum Tillage. A term used for practically all primary cultivation where the plough is not used. Depths may vary from 150mm to only 50mm and may use tines, discs and presses. Moisture Soil water tension is usually measured in centibars, where a centibar is 1/100th of a bar, and a bar is roughly equivalent to one atmosphere of pressure. Centibars measure the force that a plant must exert to extract water from the soil. As the plant works harder to remove water, the centibar number increases. So larger centibar numbers mean drier soil. Molluscicides A group of pesticides used to control unwanted slugs and snails. Monoculture Planting the same crop in the same field year after year with no crop rotation. Mouldboard That part of a plough which actually turns the soil after the share has cut the furrow bottom. Nematicide A pesticide used to control unwanted nematodes (eelworms), generally in root crops such as potatoes. Net Blotch Primarily of barley, this disease appears as small brown lesions which develop to produce a network of brown lines. Nitrogen Generic term used by farmers for fertilisers supplying nitrogen to plants (e.g. Ammonium nitrate) Nitrogen fixation The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to plant compounds by microorganisms in soil and root nodules. (e.g. in legumes such as clover or peas) Node The point on a plant stem where a leaf or leaves are attached. A new stem leaf or even root may grow from this point. Non Inversion Tillage Similar to MinTill where crop residues are mixed with the top layer of soil instead of being buried by ploughing. Nozzle Also known as a spray tip or jet on a farm Sprayer. A device which converts pressure to velocity and thus atomises the liquid for application to crops. On a tractor drawn machine, jets are normally 500mm apart and form droplets of fine, medium or coarse sizes. Oat It is thought that oats are native to Britain and can be grown on sites of low fertility. Used as horse fodder and of course for Scottish porridge and oat cakes. Oilseed rape The name used in the UK for Canola. primarily grown to produce oil for foodstuffs. GM and hybrid varieties produce specialist oils used in pharmaceuticals and industry. Organic Low output farming using rotations, clover, and very few artificial fertilisers, pesticides and antibiotics. Organophospates A class of insecticide that was originally synthesized during World War II as a nerve warfare agent. Compulsory sheep dipping in the UK exposed many people sensitive to these compounds. Examples of OPs include chlorpyrifos and sarin. Pathogen Any micro-organism that causes a disease in plants or animals. Pea On a farm scale two types of pea are grown: Vining peas for human consumption, and combinable peas generally for livestock feed. Pesticide Generic term for any Plant Protection Product which may be subdivided into herbicides, fungicides and insecticides. ph The acidity index of the soil. Various crops perform better at optimum ph so certain crops may be suited to particular fields or areas. ph may be raised (more alkaline) by the application of ground limestone. Phosphorus An elemental nutrient required for crops. Normally applied as a phosphate. Plough A device which has changed little over the centuries used to turn the top layer of soil over and bury trash ready for the next crop. Poaching Damage to grass and soil caused by excessive animal treading in wet weather particularly round feeders etc. Pollard To cut the top off a fairly young tree at a height of 2 meteres or more to produce a straight stem with a 'bushy' top. Polled An animal bred without horns. Usually refers to cattle. Pollen Fine particles containing the fertilizing element of plants (male) formed by the anthers of plants. Most allergies are caused by grass and tree pollens. Pollen Beetle A small (about 3mm) shiny black beetle which can occasionally become a pest in canola. It can destroy the flowers whilst still buds, in it's attempts to reach the pollen. Potassium An essential elemental nutrient required for crop growth, normally supplied as inorganic 'K'. Pound Measure of weight consisting of 16 ounces. There were 2240 pounds in a ton. (not tonne). Power harrow A shallow working secondary cultivator with rotating tines which stir up and break the soil down to a seedbed. Regularly have seed drills fitted to carry out two operations with one pass. PreEm Pre Emergence - generally refers to herbicides which are applied to the soil before but more commonly after sowing but before the plant begins to appear above the soil surface. Also known as residual herbicides. Propane A liquefied petroleum gas (C3H8) containing more heat value than natural gas that is used for grain drying. PTO Power Take Off. A splined shaft at the front or rear of a tractor used to supply power to attachments such as mowers or power harrows. Standard speeds are 540 & 1000 rpm. Quarter A old measure of weight used in grain. Wheat-4½ cwt, Barley-4cwt, Oats-3cwt. Raddle A sticky coloured paste applied to a ram’s belly at breeding time to enable served ewes to be marked. Sometime refers to a harness carrying a wax block which serves the same purpose. Ragwort A weed which is gaining in population due to it's being uncontrolled on roadside verges etc. It is poisonous to livestock when wilting and should be controlled. Rhizome A stem of a plant which grows underground in a horizontal manner producing roots and shoots at the nodes. Once these shoots establish the rhizome may be severed and the new plants will survive. Some rhizomes may also store food for the plant. See also Stolon. Rhynchosporium A particular problem on barley large oval lesions with brown margins spread all over the surface of a leaf if uncontrolled. Rigg and Furrow Undulations in pasture especially on clay soils due to land being cosistently ploughed in the same manner to give 5 or 7 yard 'riggs'. This assisted drainage but made travel with modern machinery more difficult. Rod A measure of distance equal to 1/4 of a chain, 16.5 feet or 5.5 yards. Also known as a perch. An acre is 160 square rods. Roller Implement used to firm down seedbeds to give better soil/seed contact to improve germination. Also used to push down stones in cereals and grass to prevent damage to harvesting machinery. Rotation Changing crops in a field an an annual basis to maximise yield and minimise disease, soil damage etc. Ruminant A hoofed animal such as cattle, sheep, goats and deer with a complicated stomach of 4 parts rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum and which chew the cud. Runoff A general term applying to water which for many reasons remains on the surface of land and flows to the lowest point possibly causing erosion or leaching in the process. Rust A fungal disease of many plant species but a problem on cereals and beans. It removes green leaf area and drains the plant of strength reducing yield and quality. Rye Now a minority crop, rye will grow on poor 'hungry' soils. Resembling barley with awns but with a much taller straw it is still favoured in Eastern Europe. Scanning (Sheep) Using an ultrasound device to view the foetuses in a pregnant ewe to determine a) the number of lambs and b) the development stage. This allows the shepherd to allocate the correct amount and analysis of feed to groups of similar ewes. Seedbed Land which has been cultivated sufficiently to provide a fine enough particle size and is firm enough to allow seeds to germinate quickly and evenly. Septoria The main disease of wheat in the UK. Septoria tritici can have devastating effects on wheat by removing green leaf area. It appears as grey/green striped lesions which expand and develop to eventually turn the whole leaf brown. Set-aside Land that is compulsorily removed from production for one or more years. Compensation is given towards the value of crop that could have been grown. SFP Single Farm Payment. The EU scheme ostensibly designed to simplify the subsidisation of food production but soon became complex and bureaucratic. Share (Plough) That part of the plough which operates horizontally and cuts the furrow bottom. Shuttle A device on a tractor or handler which allows direction to be reversed at the flick of a lever with no requirement to use the clutch. Side Knife When combining crops such as canola where the foliage is dense and tangled, a vertical sideknife is used on the combine header to cut through the stems and prevent the header becoming entangled in the crop. (Picture) Sidlings When working a field with multiple slopes, it may be necessary to traverse across the hill. The tractor and implement tend to slide down this slope or crab across the hill, these bouts are sidlings. Silage Silage is grass which is mown wilted chopped and ensiled in a clamp where anerobic fermentation takes place. Thus most of the nutrients are maintained in the silage. Silo A tower, generally cylindrical made of steel or concrete used to store grain or silage in an airtight atmosphere. It is filled from the top and emptied at the bottom. Slag A by-product of the iron industry, slag consists of mainly silica and lime with many trace elements. This may be used to improve the fertility of grassland. Slurry Animal dung mixed with water and urine which can be handled as a semi-liquid. Spear (Grain) A tubular, pointed instument about 2 metres long which has apertures that may be opened once it has been pushed into a pile of grain allowing a representative sample to be taken.(Picture) Sprayer A term used for an implement used for applying pesticides or liquid fertiliser to crops. Many variations on a basic design, widths vary from 12 to 48 metres. Spreader (Manure) spreader is an implement resembling a trailer which has powered rotors to chop and spread manure evenly. Staggers Medical condition caused by a lack of magnesium in lactating stock. Steer A castrated bull. Stirk Generally, a heifer or bullock over twelve months old. Stolon A stem running horizontally on the soil surface which may produce shoots or roots. See also Rhizome. Stone Measure of weight equal to 14 lbs. 8 stone equalled one hundredweight. Stook A group of 6 or 8 sheaves of corn which were stacked on end in pairs to allow the grain and straw to dry. Store cattle/sheep Animals grown slowly to just below their potential, they are bought and made ready for slaughter by Finishers. Straight Straight (fertiliser) is one which contains only one nutrient e.g. nitogen or potash as opposed to a compound which contains more than one. Straw That part of the crop that is left after thrashing the grain. It may be baled for use as stock bedding or low grade feed or chopped and incorporated to help improve soil structure. Strip-till A method of crop establishment where a narrow band is cut in the soil, through previous crop residues, where the seed is placed and covered. The remainder of the land is untouched. Strobilurin A recent development in fungicides using chemicals extracted from another fungus. They have a suppressive effect on other fungi but also assist the plant in remaining green. Stubble The remains of the plant stem left behind after harvesting a crop. Subsoil That layer of soil normally below cultivation depth but which has a great effect on the performance of the topsoil. Subsoiling is an operation where a deep cultivator runs through the subsoil at a depth of around 450 mm when the soil is dry to shatter it. Suffolk (Sheep) A broad, long and heavy sheep used in meat production generally by crossing with other breeds such as mules or texel. Sugar Beet A variety of beet (Beta vulgaris) which is specifically grown because of it's high sugar content which can be processed to produce quality sugars. Sulphur A non metallic, trace element which is essential in plant growth. Atmospheric deposition has been adquate to replenish soil reserves until recently when fossil fuel emmissions have been 'cleaned up'. Sulphur (sulfur) must now be applied to crops in fertilisers. Swath A row of grass or straw which is laid ready for baling or similar operation. Swede A brassica root crop commonly used for feeding livestock either in situ in the field or after lifting and carting. Most 'turnips' in shops are actually swedes. Also known as 'Swedish Turnip' or 'Rutabaga'. Telescopic Telescopic handlers are a development of the traditional forklift. They have a boom which can be raised or lowered within which is another section which can be extended to give greater height or reach. Most can have a variety of attachments fitted such as grain buckets manure forks bale grabs or pallet forks. Thrashing Mill Before combines most grain was separated from straw by means of permanently sited mills in farm buildings. The next step before combines were large mobile mills. The principles of thrashing and separation has changed little over the years. Tick A type of mite which is suited only to one host animal per species. They feed on the blood of the host. Tillering The stage a plant goes through when side shoots are developing which each may carry its own flower and ear. Each such shoot is a tiller. Tilth The quality of a seedbed. The finer the tilth the better protected the seeds are and the better the soil/seed contact for moisture transfer. Tine A rigid or sprung leg of a cultivator which carries a wearing 'point'. Tonne A (metric) tonne consists of 1000 kilograms. An imperial ton equals 1016 kg. Top Dress Applying fertiliser to the surface of soil (normally in a growing crop) so that rain will wash the nutrients into the soil. Tramline A method to mark a field by halting seed flow during drilling to leave blank strips in the crop which subsequent tractor journeys may be made. Essential for the accurate application of pesticides and fertiliser. Tup Northern word for a ram - a male sheep for breeding. Variable rate application Using GPS positioning to vary the amount of fertiliser or pesticide applied to different parts of a field from a plan created on a PC using soil sampling or yield mapping data. Warble Fly The larva of the warble fly cause much discomfort to cattle as it moves from the hoof to the animal's back under the skin. Weaning Gradually leading young animals to be less dependant on their mother's milk and become independant and eat solid foods. Weed 'A plant growing in the wrong place.' End users have demanded fewer weed seeds in grain etc. over the years requiring fields to become weed free. Field margins however maintain the diversity necsessary to support various 'weeds'. Wheat Wheat falls into two categories, hard, generally suitable for milling (flour) and soft, usually used for distilling animal feed and biscuit making. Wild Oat (Avena Fatua) A grass weed which has incredible survival traits. It can be a major problem in cereal crops where it reduces yield and grain quality. Windrow Similar to a swath. The crop is laid in rows to be dried by the wind and sun. Worm As opposed to earthworm worms are generally intestinal worms of livestock which are normally contracted by infected pasture. Animals may be treated with anthelmintics to control worms. Yeld Northern term for a ewe which is not carrying lambs, when expected to be pregnant. Yellow Rust A disease of cereals which is generally controlled when treatments for other diseases are made. Yellow pustules appear on the leaf and develop between the veins to give a striped effect. Yew An evergreen hardwood tree noted for it's use in making longbows. Common in churchyards it has many myths attached to it. Yield Mapping Using GPS to derive a position and sensors on a combine harvester, a map may drawn of a field showing the low and high yielding parts. This can be used in future years to manage those parts differently Zoonosis Zoonosis is any infectious disease that can be transmitted from animals, both wild and domestic, to humans. |
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A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A Acidic soils: The degree of acidity (or "sourness") in the soil, is expressed as a number within a pH scale, running from 0 to 14. pH is the concentration of hydrogen (H) ions -- the more hydrogen ions there are, the more acid the soil is. Below 7 is considered to be acidic while above 7 is alkaline. Although plants prefer different levels of pH, if a soil is too acidic it, plants cannot take up nutrients such as N, P and K. Most nutrients that plants need are readily available when the pH of the soil solution ranges from 6.0 to 7.5. (Source: Acid or Alkaline? What pH means in gardenspeak, at www.plantea.com/pH.htm - blog by Marion Owen). Agricultural involution: increasing productivity in terms of output per area (land productivity) but not increasing labour productivity (output per labourer). Agrobiodiversity: The variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture, including crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries. It comprises the diversity of genetic resources (varieties, breeds) and species used for food, fodder, fibre, fuel and pharmaceuticals. It also includes the diversity of non-harvested species that support production (soil micro-organisms, predators, pollinators), and those in the wider environment that support agro-ecosystems (agricultural, pastoral, forest and aquatic) as well as the diversity of agroecosystems (FAO, 1999). Agro-ecology: The term agroecologia originates from Latin America, and refers to a practice, a science and a movement. Ine one definition: Agroecology centers on food production that makes the best use of nature’s goods and services while not damaging these resources. It uses a whole-systems approach to farming and food systems; and links ecology, culture, economics and society to create healthy environments, food production and communities. Its goal is to integrate components so that biological efficiency is improved, biodiversity is preserved and the agroecosystem productivity and its self-regulating capacity are maintained. (For more information and links, visit our What we do pages or see the Agroecology in Action website at: www.agroeco.org). Agro-ecosystem: Agro-ecosystems are about the interactions between all living and non-living components at farm level and in the surrounding landscape. Agroforestry: This basically refers to "trees on farm". It is the collective name for land-management systems that optimise the economic and ecological benefits created when trees and/or shrubs are integrated with crops and/or livestock. (For more information and links to resources, see the website for the World Agroforestry Centre, at: www.worldagroforestry.org Also see LEISA Magazine issue on Trees and Farmers (1990)) Agrofuels: See Biofuels. Agro-industry: Industrial sector that processes agricultural products Alkaline soils: The degree of alkalinity (or “sweetness”) in the soil, is expressed as a number within a pH scale, running from 0 to 14. pH is the concentration of hydrogen (H) ions -- the less hydrogen ions there are, the more alkaline the soil is. Above 7 is considered to be alkaline while below 7 is acid. Although plants prefer different levels of pH, if a soil is too alkaline, nutrients such as iron (Fe), manganese (Mg), and phosphorus (P) are less available. Most nutrients that plants need are readily available when the pH of the soil solution ranges from 6.0 to 7.5. (Source: Acid or Alkaline? What pH means in gardenspeak, at www.plantea.com/pH.htm - blog by Marion Owen). Amino acids: building blocks for proteins. Aquifers: an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, silt or clay) from which groundwater can be usefully extracted. Arbuscules: these are formed by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and look similar to minute sea anemones because they have many small projections that extend inside the plant cells. They are formed by repeated branching of a hypha when it enters a cell. They are the places where the plant and the fungus exchange food and nutrients with each other. Ave: class of animals that are referred to as “true birds”, including domesticated poultry. B Biodiversity (or Biological diversity): the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the whole planet. It exists at three main levels: 1. the combinations of species that make up different ecosystems; 2. the number of different species; and 3. the different combinations of genes in species (adapted from Bioversity www.bioversity.org). Biodynamic (BD) agriculture: Based on a series of lectures and conversations with Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner, this approach to agriculture relates the ecology of the earth-organism to that of the entire cosmos. The farm is seen as a "living organism" and an important core concept is the necessity to take care of the living soil. (For more information and linked resources, see the website of the Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association in North America, at: www.biodynamics.com) Bioenergy: Energy derived from biomass-based fuels. Many processes are available for producing bioenergy. These range from conventional (direct) uses of biomass such as burning of sticks and branches to generate energy for cooking and heating, to modern (indirect) production processes involved in biofuels (see definition below), such as converting sugar and starch crops to ethanol to even more advanced technologies such as gasification of wood chips for transport fuel production (FAO). Biofuel: solid, liquid or gaseous fuel obtained from relatively recently lifeless biological material (biomass) and is different from fossil fuels, which are derived from biological material that has been dead for a long time. Biofuels based on plants can be produced in two main ways: one is to grow crops high in sugar (e.g. sugar cane, sweet sorghum) or starch (maize), to be fermented to produce ethyl alcohol (ethanol); the second is to grow plants that contain high amounts of vegetable oil (e.g. oil palm, soybean, jatropha). Heating these oils allows them to be burned directly in a diesel engine, or they can be chemically processed to produce fuels such as biodiesel. Biogas: typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas is a type of biofuel. Bio-intensive agriculture: A sustainable 8-step food-raising method know as "Grow Biointensive" which focuses on maximum yields from the minimum area of land, while simultaneously improving the soil. This method was developed by John Jeavons and includes double dug raised beds, intensive planting, composting, and companion planting. (For more information and links to resources, see Ecology Action website, at: www.growbiointensive.org) Biotechnology: "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products for specific use" (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992). This definition refers to medical and industrial applications as well as many of the tools and techniques used in agriculture and food production. Bovine: This animal subfamily includes a diverse group of 10 genera of medium- to large-sized ungulates, including domestic cattle, buffalo and yaks. General characteristics include cloven hoofs and usually at least one of the sexes of a species having "true horns". Breed: a group of animals that has a unique combination of genes, and is often physically similar. However, breeds are cultural concepts that differ from country to country which makes it sometimes difficult to characterise them. The term “breed” is usually used when discussing animal genetic diversity. The currently accepted classification system of breeds distinguishes between “local” (breeds that occur within one country only) or "transboundary" breeds (breeds that are found in several countries, and that are generally bred for a single product for the market, based on the use of high levels of modern inputs and technologies). C Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies: As its name implies, CCS has to do with technologies that capture carbon dioxide and store it in such a way that it cannot be released into the atmosphere. Carrying capacity: refers to the number of individuals who can be supported in a given area within natural resource limits, and without degrading the natural social, cultural and economic environment for present and future generations. The carrying capacity for any given area is not fixed. It can be altered by improved technology, but mostly it is changed for the worse by pressures which accompany a population increase. As the environment is degraded, carrying capacity actually shrinks, leaving the environment no longer able to support even the number of people who could formerly have lived in the area on a sustainable basis. No population can live beyond the environment's carrying capacity for very long (definition from Urban Environmental Management webpage on Ecological Footprints). Catchment: see definition for "watershed". Cellulose: main component of the primary cell wall of green plants Civil society: Climate change: otherwise known as "Global Warming" or the "Greenhouse Effect", this is based on consistent observations that the earth is warming up: global temperatures are rising much more quickly than normal, snow and ice is melting, and the global average level of the sea is rising. Because of global warming, more frequent and intense heat waves, storms, flooding and drought are projected around the world. This has a great impact on the further loss of biodiversity and degradation of land, soil, forest, freshwater and oceans. Commodity: an economic term, referring to a good for which there is demand that but which is equivalent no matter who produces it. Commodities are basic resources (e.g. iron ore, crude oil, copper, gold and aluminum) and agricultural products (e.g. salt, sugar, coffee beans, soyabeans, wheat, rice). Commensalism: Common pool resources: Companion planting: Competition: Complementarity: Conservation agriculture: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): COSP: Cover crops: a low-growing crop that is planted for different purposes, to: keep the ground covered to avoid soil erosion; to increase soil fertility (usually through the use of "green manures" or legumes that fix nitrogen); control weeds. The selection of the type of cover crop also includes considerations of whether the crop can lead to food, fodder or a cash crop. Credit: Crop rotation: This practice involves the mixing of crops in the same place, but in sequence, over time. Crop rotation builds up synergies and complementarities by alternating crops according to families. It does this to avoid the buildup of pathogens and pests that often occurs when a single species is continuously cropped; to avoid excessive depletion of particular soil nutrients, planting crops that have different fertility demands and contributions in sequence will help to balance soil nutrients; and to improve soil structure by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants. Cross-breed: an animal with parents of two different breeds, varieties, or populations. Cross-breeding is done to produce offspring with shared traits or to maintain health and viability of animals. Irresponsible cross-breeding can also produce animals of inferior quality or dilute the gene pool of a pure breed to the point of extinction. Cultivar: a cultivated variety of a plant that has been deliberately selected for specific desirable characteristics (such as the colour and form of the flower, yield of the crop, disease resistance etc.), that will be retained when propagated correctly. Cut-and-carry feeding: See "Zero-grazing" below. D Derivative: Desertification: persistent degradation of land in dry regions because of climatic variations and human activities. Diversification: in terms of income, this refers to the situation of having a number of different income sources in order to decrease risks of depending on only one source; in terms of diversification in farming, it also refers to spreading risks by having a number of different strategies and products in the farming system. Diversity: essentially, this refers to differences; in farming this relates to different elements (e.g. crop or livestock varieties) performing the same function. See also definition for biodiversity above. (See LEISA Magazine "Farming diversity" March 2009 Vol 25 no.1) Documentation: see “Systematisation”. Double-cropping: a second crop is planted immediately after the first has been harvested; this differs from Relay cropping (see below) in timing of the second planting. E Ecoagriculture: Ecological footprint: a measure of human demand on the Earth's resources and ecosystems. It compares human demand with the capacity for the planet to regenerate the ecological resources used. Ecology: the study of how organisms interact with each other and with the environment. Ecosystem: a dynamic complex of plants, animals and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit in a certain place (from Convention on Biological Diversity). Ecosystems make up big natural systems such as grasslands, mangroves, coral reefs and tropical forests, but also agro-ecosystems, which are highly dependent on human activities for their existence and maintenance. El Niño: a situation when the the physical relationships between wind, tropical Pacific ocean currents and temperature create destructive patterns that influence weather around the world. Endemic disease: a disease has reached epidemic proportions when its pattern of frequency in a population is clearly in excess of its expected frequency within a certain time interval. It then occurs with predictable regularity in a population with only minor fluctuations in frequency over time. The term "endemic" also refers to the constant presence of a disease in a population. Endogenous development: Energy: the capability to do work Entrepreneur: basically, this refers to a business person. Enzymes: catalysts that carry out all of the chemical changes involved in plant growth Epidemic: when new cases of a certain disease, in a given human population, and during a given period, substantially exceed what is "expected", based on recent experience. An epidemic may be restricted to one locale (an outbreak), more general (an epidemic) or even global (a pandemic). Erosion: the movement of soil particles by the action of water, wind, ice, and gravity. This is a natural process, but land can become seriously eroded through poorly managed land-use practices such as deforestation, leaving land bare, overgrazing or road-building. Ethnoveterinary practices: veterinary practices making us of locally available natural resources and knowledge. This is sometimes also referred to as "traditional" veterinary practices. Eutrophication: of a water system is caused by a high concentration of nutrients (e.g. from high fertiliser or manure runoff) entering into it and creating an ecological imbalance. This can lead to abnormally high levels of growth of algae and aquatic plants such as water hyacinths in rivers and lakes. This growth decreases oxygen levels in the water which has serious implications for the survival of other organisms in the system and, consequently, on food supply and biodiversity. Exotic species, variety, breed: Introduced species, variety or breed that is not found locally. Experiential learning: F Factors of production: Farmer Field Schools (FFS): a more structured approach to facilitate experiential learning of farmers on their own fields, developed by FAO with rice farmers in Indonesia in the early 1990s, and now widely used in a variety of contexts. In a FFS, farmers are trained to systematically observe their crop ecosystem from week to week, and based on their observations (e.g. on pest-predator ratio) they take an informed decision (whether to spray pesticides or not, and if so, which spray to use). Extension agents act as facilitators, making FFS a more participatory learning method than regular extension. Feed conversion efficiency: feed required for livestock, to produce the edible output. Food security: G Gene revolution: a term for the large scale application of biotechnologies in food production, for example thought the development and use of GMOs. Like with the Green Revolution, there is much faith in new technologies. Its use is seen as the panacea to world hunger, disregarding the many disadvantages concerning loss of biodiversity, environmental degradation and social implications. Gene sequences: genes are long strings of instructions for making proteins (which are the building blocks of life). These instructions are coded by a 4-letter alphabet, the DNA bases, which are called "gene sequences". Genetically modified organism (GMO): an organism whose genes have been altered using "genetic engineering" techniques that transfer DNA molecules from different sources into an organism, giving it modified or new genes. Genetic diversity: the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. Genetic engineering (GE): the alteration of genetic code by artificial means, and is therefore different from traditional selective breeding, in which the organism's genes are manipulated indirectly. Although scientists knew about the existence of genes and DNA earlier, it was not until the 1970s that gene sequences and the fact that genes could be split into segments were discovered. These discoveries made GE possible. Genetics: the science of heredity and variation in living organisms. Globalisation: Glut: when there is an oversupply of a good such that the market supply is greater than the demand. Good governance: Good governance primarily has to do with how effectively a government functions, and serves all of its citizens. It refers to rules and how agreements are made between a government, its citizens as well as businesses. Good governance exists if citizens have a say in how their country is governed - such that even the views of minorities are taken into account and the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. Good governance exists if governing is transparent, and leaders can be held accountable. Governance: ‘governance’ refers to the process of decision-making and implementation at local, regional and national levels, by governmental and other institutions. To understand governance for sustainable farming, we look at the policies and funding mechanisms that support or constrain processes in agriculture. Grading: sorting of commodities according to quality, size or other characteristics. Green Revolution: Beginning in the 1960s, the "Green Revolution" became an important technological approach to farming, introduced as a way of increasing production of wheat, rice and maize to meet the needs of growing populations. The technological approach is based on input packages designed by agricultural scientific research centres. The package included new high-yielding seed varieties (to replace indigenous varieties) together with chemical inputs (pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers) and better irrigation, and allowed for the development of more intensive, monoculture-based agriculture. Greenhouse gases: These are carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane. Scientists have concluded that human activities (including agriculture) that increase greenhouse gas concentrations have contributed to the current increase in the planet's temperature - known as "Global warming" or Climate change. Green manure: a type of cover crop that is selected to increase soil fertility, most often for its contribution of nitrogen, because this is often the most limiting nutrient. Green manure crops are therefore often legumes. H Habitat: the specific environmental conditions required for a particular species to thrive. Heirloom/conservation variety: a cultivated variety of plant that was commonly grown during earlier periods in human history in a certain region, but which is not used in modern agriculture. Many heirloom vegetable varieties have kept their traits through open pollination, while fruit varieties, such as apples, have been multiplied over the centuries through grafts and cuttings. Holistic management: Hybrid seed: the first generation ("F1") seed produced from controlled cross-pollination between two different parent lines. Hybrid varieties are bred to improve the yield of the resulting plants by combining greater uniformity with other improvements, such as disease resistance. As hybrid seeds are F1s, their characteristics will segregate in the next generations and their yield goes down if seed collected from the first year is used in the second year. For this reason, the seeds of hybrid varieties are not suitable for re-use and this means farmers should buy new seeds every year. The extra costs and dependency on commercial seed production adds an extra burden to poor farmers. Hypha (plural Hyphae): long, branching, cobweb-like strands projections from fungi, extending out to reach nutrients. I Improved seed: seed that is bred in formal PGR systems for particularly desired characteristics (e.g. drought tolerance, high yielding or early maturing). Improved seed can be either hybrid or open-pollinating; the latter can be derived by selecting certain plant types from landrace populations or by crossing landraces with modern varieties. Such improved seeds are used more widely than traditional and locally adapted seeds and require some inputs to produce optimally in different environments. More farmers are using these seeds to replace the large diversity of local varieties, which means that the use of traditional landraces is decreasing, thereby increasing the chances of reducing the agrobiodiversity base. Indigenous/traditional knowledge: see ‘local knowledge’. Infomediary: Information and communications technology (or ICT): consists of all technical means used to handle information and aid communication, including computer and network hardware as well as necessary software. ICTs therefore include telephones, broadcast media (e.g. radio, television), and all types of audio and video processing and transmission. Infrastructure: Innovation: Inputs in agriculture: whatever comes into a farm system, such as physical resources like water or fertiliser, or other resources such as knowledge or skills, that are used to produce something. Inoculate/ Microbial inoculant: agricultural amendments that use beneficial microbes (bacteria or fungi) to promote plant health. Many of the microbes involved form symbiotic relationships with the target crops where both parties benefit, the plant benefiting from greater access to essential nutrients such as nitrogen or phosphorus. Integrated Pest Management (IPM): the careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimise risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasises the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms (definition from FAO). Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): "Intellectual property" is the term used to refer to a group of legal regimes, such as patents, trademarks and copyright, that provide legal protection to creators and inventors (and in the case of agriculture, breeders), from others copying or using their work or invention (or genetic resources) without permission. IP Rights in agriculture therefore safeguard the right of the breeder to benefit from others using their genetic resources. Inter-cropping (or companion planting): planting of different crops close together, for complementary synergies in nutrient uptake, attracting of natural enemies and buffering against or repelling of pests. J K Knowledge management: L Land concession: the right to use land. Landrace: domesticated plants (or animals), adapted to the natural and cultural environment in which they live (or originated) and have co-evolved over generations. Landrace populations are often highly variable in appearance, but they are each identifiable morphologically and have a certain genetic "integrity". Landraces can have particular properties or characteristics, for example being early or late maturing. They might be particularly well adapted to particular soil types. The terms "landrace" and "traditional variety" are sometimes used interchangeably. Landscape: a mosaic of local ecosystems with a particular pattern of topography, vegetation, land use and settlement, over a kilometres-wide area (modified from Ecoagriculture). Leaching of nutrients: when water percolates through the soil, it can carry dissolved nutrients downward with it, meaning that the nutrients are beyond the reach of roots and therefore lost to plants. Liberalisation: the removal of government restrictions on trade, or in general a trend of decreasing government control. Lignin: important component of cell walls in plants. Livestock revolution: Local breed: a livestock breed that occurs within one country. The vast majority of local breeds have been developed by natural selection and simple techniques of mating control and selection used by farmers, without using modern genetic and breeding technologies. Local breeds make up more than two-thirds of livestock breeds in most parts of the world. Of the total known 7,616 livestock breeds, the majority (6,536) are local (these are sometimes referred to as "traditional" or "indigenous" breeds). Local knowledge: knowledge that has been built up over time because of a strong understanding of complex ecological processes and responses to these processes in a specific place. FAO: it is a collection of facts and relates to the entire system of concepts, beliefs and perceptions that people hold about the world around them. This includes the way people observe and measure their surroundings, how they solve problems and validate new information. It includes the processes whereby knowledge is generated, stored, applied and transmitted to others. It is often contrasted with "formal" or "scientific" knowledge. Elsewhere this is also referred to as "indigenous" or "traditional" knowledge. (For more on this, see FAO. 2006. Building on Gender, Agrobiodiversity and Local Knowledge: A training manual) M Mammals: organisms that possess mammary glands or udders, give birth to fully developed young and nurse their offspring with milk produced in their mammary glands. People are mammals, as well as many domestic livestock including bovines, sheep, goats, rabbits, camels, etc. Marginal land: in agricultural terms, it is the term used to describe poor-quality land that is likely to yield a low return on crop production. It is the last land to be brought into production and the first land to be abandoned. Examples are the desert fringes in Africa and mountain areas in the UK. Such land is typically used for extensive livestock production. Mechanisation: Mechanisation provides human operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements of work. It can also refer to the use of machines to replace human or draught labour. In agriculture, mechanisation has a wider meaning as it refers to the replacement of manual labour and simple hand tools with human, animal, electrical and internal combustion engine powered (driven) machinery. (from Wikipedia). Microcredit: Microfinance: small-scale financial services, including savings, credit and insurance. Middleman: a term used in marketing that refers to those actors who stand between the producer and the retailer or consumer. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): Mineralisation: in terms of soil, this is when the chemical compounds in organic matter decompose, or are oxidised into plant accessible forms. Mitigation: alleviation, lessening, reducing, diminishing – mitigation measures will aim to alleviate or offset the harm caused by a certain situation. Monetisation: Monoculture: the practice of continuously producing or growing one single crop over a wide area. It is important to distinguish monoculture from agriculture in which different "sole" crops are rotated from season to season. Monogastrics: this term refers to animals with only one stomach. Examples include poultry (chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese and pigeons) and pigs. Monopoly: a term taken from economics that refers to a situation in which only a single company provides a good or service. Because of the firm in question being the only place providing the good or service, there is no market competition, and therefore it has the ability to charge whatever price it wants. Such a company is said to be monopolising a portion of the market. Multifunctionality: in terms of agricultural sustainability, this refers to the interconnectedness of agriculture's different roles and functions. The concept of multifunctionality recognises agriculture as a multi-output activity producing not only commodities (food, feed, fibres, agrofuels, medicinal products and ornamentals), but also non-commodity outputs such as environmental services, landscape and cultural heritages (FAO). Multi-purpose crops: relates to a single crop performing many functions (e.g. a tree having fruit, providing shade, living fence, leaves for fodder, etc.). Mutualism: any relationship between individuals of different species in which both individuals derive a benefit. Mycorrhizal fungi: fungi that form a symbiotic association with the roots of particular plants, by colonizing their roots; in this way, plants benefit from greater availability of nutrients. N Natural farming: Based on the teachings of Masanobu Fukuoka, the essence of this method is to reproduce natural conditions as closely as possible. It calls for a farming system that does not require weeding, pesticides, chemical fertilizers or tillage. Biodiversity and always keeping the ground covered are important tenets. (For more information and resources, see http://fukuokafarming.info which also includes information on an offshoot of Fukuoka’s ideas, called Synergistic farming). Net forest loss: Nomad: a member of a people or tribe to move from place to place in search of pastures and food (Collins, 1990). O Open-pollinated seed: relates to seed that requires pollination by insects, birds, wind or other natural mechanisms. As open pollination is not controlled, different kinds of traits will come up in the next generations. Unlike hybrid seed, farmers can collect and select open-pollinated seed according to the traits they desire. Option: finance term referring to a financial instrument that conveys the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell another financial instrument or asset at a specific price within a specific period of time. Options are traded either in the over-the-counter market or in the exchange-traded market. Organic agriculture: The term is often used to indicate any farming system that does not use chemical inputs. However, under its official global organisation, "International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements" (IFOAM), it is a specific certified commercial way of farming with ecological, social and economic objectives. Originating in the 1940s, this movement has grown such that 2 percent of total world farmland being certified organic in 2005.IFOAM currently unites 750 member organisations in 108 countries. (For more information and resources, see IFOAM’s website: www.ifoam.org) Outgrower scheme: a contractual partnership between growers or landholders and a company for the production of commercial agricultural products. Farmers are linked with a large farm or processing plant which supports production planning, input supply, extension advice and transport, usually but not always through contractual agreement. Out-grower partnerships vary considerably in the extent to which inputs, costs, risks and benefits are shared between growers/landholders and companies. Partnerships may be short or long-term (eg. 40 years), and may offer growers only financial benefits or a wider range of benefits. Also, growers may act individually or as a group in partnership with a company, and use private or communal land. Outputs in agriculture: whatever is coming out of a farming system, such as physical outputs like production of crops or animals, or water flows or losses, or more abstract elements such as improved knowledge and skills. P Pandemic: an epidemic of infectious disease that is spreading through human populations across a large region; for instance a continent, or even worldwide. Throughout history there have been a number of pandemics, such as smallpox and tuberculosis. More recent pandemics include the HIV pandemic and the 2009 H1N1 flu pandemic. Parasitism: a relationship in which one member of an association benefits while the other is harmed. Parastatal: government-owned company or organisation. Paravet: community animal health care worker that is not a qualified veterinarian but can provide basic care (e.g. administration of some medicines and vaccinations) and production advice to people in their communities. Participatory Action Research (PAR): a research design which puts the experiences of the community central. It is a cyclical process, where researchers and community reflect on the research outcomes and process during the course of the study. Community members are active participants in the research process, to get accurate results and to empower the community and create ownership of the outcomes. Participatory Innovation Development (PID): a process in which innovative solutions to farmers’ problems are identified and improved. It is a triangulation of indigenous knowledge of the farmers, scientific knowledge of the researchers, and field experience-based knowledge of the extension workers. It is an expansion of the PTD approach, as it looks at organisational innovation and change in addition to technology development. (FAO and Prolinnova) Participatory Technology Development (PTD): Participatory Technology Development is a participatory extension model. The objective of PTD is to develop a technology though a joint learning process that involves both farmers and external facilitators: agricultural fieldworkers, researchers, and sometimes other stakeholders. Farmers and facilitators jointly identify the problem that needs to be solved, then they both contribute ideas on how the problem can be solved and agree on a way to test the different strategies proposed. Pastoralism: These systems are characterised by ruminants (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats) and camels grazing mainly grasses and other herbaceous plants, often on communal or open-access areas in a mobile fashion. A pastoralist is someone who is a member of a present or formerly nomadic, livestock keeping culture who remains involved in the livestock economy and participates in the societal customs and norms regarding social behavior. Percolation: the movement and filtering of fluids through porous materials, such as the movement of water through the soil. Perishable food: food that can decay or rot quickly if not refrigerated or taken care of in another way (e.g. through drying, salting, canning, etc.). Permaculture: the term "permaculture", coined by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, is a blend of "permanent agriculture" and “permanent culture”. The goal is perennial agricultural systems that mimic the structure and interrelationships found in natural ecologies. Originating as an agroecological design theory, it freely borrows techniques and cultural systems from organic agriculture, sustainable forestry, horticulture, agroforestry and the land management systems of indigenous peoples, developing organising principles that are transferred through two-week intensive permaculture design courses around the world. Pests: unwanted animals that limit crop production potential. Usually this refers to insects but it also includes larger animals such as birds or rabbits that cause damage to crop growth. pH: in agriculture, soil pH is an important measure of nutrient availability. The pH scale, running from 0 to 14, measures how acid or alkaline the soil is. pH is the concentration of hydrogen (H) ions -- the more hydrogen ions there are, the more acid the soil is. Many environmental factors, including amount of rainfall, vegetation type and temperature can affect soil pH. The ideal pH for most plants and the soil food web is between 6.5 and 7. Sources: Wikipedia and Acid or Alkaline? What pH means in gardenspeak, at www.plantea.com/pH.htm (Blog by Marion Owen). Photosynthesis: process by which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using energy from sunlight. Phytosanitary standards: In order to import products, export country governments must be able to satisfy import regulations of the import government with a certificate that indicates that the shipment has been inspected and is free from harmful pests and plant diseases. Plant genetic resources: a diversity of seeds and planting material of traditional varieties and modern cultivars, crop wild relatives and other wild plant species. These resources are used as food, feed for domestic animals, fibre, clothing, shelter and energy (FAO). Polyculture: agriculture using multiple crops in the same space in imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems, and avoiding large stands of single crops, or monocultures. It includes crop rotation, multi-cropping, intercropping, companion planting, beneficial weeds, and alley cropping.) Position limits: ___________________. Processing: changing raw material into a semi-finished or finished product, such as through drying, grinding, using as part of another product, etc. Procurement: the purchase of items or services. Productivity: a measure of output from a production process, per unit of input. Two examples relevant to this series of modules are "labour productivity" (typically measured as a ratio of output per labour-hour) and "land productivity" (typically measured as a ratio of output per hectare/acre). Proteins: large, complex molecules that do most of the work in cells, and are required for their structure, function, and regulation Q Quota: _________. R v Reciprocity: the mutual equivalent exchange of goods and services over time. Recycling: when the end product of one system becomes an input and resource for another (e.g. manure from livestock becomes nutrient source for crops; crop residues become nutrient source for soil, or fodder for livestock). Relay cropping: a second crop is started amidst the first crop before it has been harvested, an important example of building the agrobiodiversity buffer in the farm. Resilience: being able to buffer shocks and stresses Retailer: a trader that sells directly to individual customers, as in a shop. Rhizobia: soil bacteria that fix Nitrogen after becoming established inside root nodules of legumes. Rhizobia require a plant host as they cannot independently fix nitrogen. Rhizosphere: soil located in the immediate vicinity of plants' roots. Ruminant: this term comes from the Latin ruminare, which means "to chew over again" as these animals have several stomachs and regurgitate their food from their first stomach, chewing it once again to be able to digest it. Ruminants include cows, buffaloes, goats and sheep, among others. S Salinisation: the process that leads to an excessive increase of water-soluble salts in the soil. It is regarded as a serious form of soil degradation. Salinisation is often associated with irrigated areas where low rainfall, high evapotranspiration rates or soil textural characteristics impede the washing out of the salts which subsequently build up in the soil surface layers. Irrigation with high salt content water dramatically worsens the problem. (Definition from European Commission: http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/Salinization) Share: a business' stock (the original capital paid into or invested in the business by its founders) is divided into "shares", the total of which must be stated at the time of business formation. Shares represent a fraction of ownership in a business and have a certain declared face value. Shelf life: the length of time that food, drink, medicine, chemicals, and many other perishable items are given before they are considered unsuitable for sale, use, or consumption. In some regions, a best before, use by or freshness date is required on packaged perishable foods (from Wikipedia). Shifting cultivation: an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned. This system often involves clearing of a piece of land followed by several years of farming or wood harvesting, until the soil loses fertility. Once the land becomes inadequate for crop production, it is usually left to be reclaimed by natural vegetation. How much time the land is cultivated and how much time is given for fallowing is critical to the stability of shifting cultivation systems, because it determines whether or not nutrients are able to be recovered within the system. If land is over-cultivated or it is given too little time to lie fallow, the land will degrade. Currently 37 million people practise shifting cultivation on 22% of the agricultural land area of the tropics, with the most in Latin America. (For an in-depth overview of this practice, see Giller, Ken and Palm, Cheryl. 2004. Cropping Systems: Slash-and-Burn Cropping Systems of the Tropics. Encyclopedia of Plant and Crop Science. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.) Sine qua non: indispensable Slash and burn: this practice consists of clearing, burning, cropping, and then abandoning the land. (See Shifting cultivation). Social capital: refers to connections within and between social networks as well as connections among individuals. These social networks are valuable and necessary for people (including farmers) to be able to achieve their goals (including of productivity). (Adapted from Wikipedia). Species: for plants - the specific name that together with the genus name, define one particular plant (with the whole name italicised, the genus capitalised, and the species in lower case e.g. Leucaena leucocephala); for animals – a group of related individuals or populations of animals which are potentially capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Spot market: This is a public financial market, in which financial instruments (e.g. cash or a contractual right) or commodities are traded for immediate delivery. This contrasts with a futures market in which delivery is due at a later date. The spot market for most instruments exists primarily on the internet. Stewardship: refers to the responsibility to take care of something owned by someone else, or owned collectively, such as forests or other environmental resources and habitats, in the interest of long-term sustainability - in this context, it can also be referred to as "land stewardship". Stoma (pl: stomata): pore in stems or leaves, used for gas exchange. v Subsidy: monetary contribution made by the government to make certain goods or services more affordable and therefore more accessible, either to all or only to certain sectors of society. Sustainable livelihood: the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base (DFID, 1999). (See DFID's Sustainable Livelihood Guidance Sheets for more detailed information on this topic). Sustainability: in general terms, this is the ability to maintain balance of a certain process or state in any system. It can be defined as the combination of resilience (being able to buffer shocks and stresses) and continuity (being able to continue over long periods and therefore not overtreading the carrying capacity of the natural resource base) (from Jules Pretty, 2008. Sustainable agriculture and food). See Learning Block 3 in Module 1 for an in-depth discussion about what sustainability means for small-scale farming. Symbiosis: commonly describes close and often long-term interactions between different biological species. The symbiotic relationship may be categorised as being mutualistic (mutually beneficial), parasitic (beneficial to one, to the detriment of the other), or commensal (one organism benefits but the other is unaffected) in nature. Synergy: when elements co-operate and build on each other to increase the farm's output. Systematisation: a methodology which facilitates the ongoing description, analysis, and documentation of the process and results of a development project (understood as any kind of formal or informal development activity) in a participatory way. New knowledge is generated though a systematic learning process, which is then fed back and used to make decisions about actions to be implemented to improve project performance. The lessons learnt are shared with others. (from Selener, Purdy & Zapata, 1998) Systems thinking: a framework for understanding how things work, as well as problems that may need to be solved. It is based on the belief that the different parts that make up a system can best be understood by looking at them in relation to each other and to other systems, rather than in isolation. The only way to fully understand why a problem or element occurs and persists is to understand the part in relation to the whole. Another way of describing systems thinking is as a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things, for seeing patterns of change rather than static "snapshots" (from The Fifth Discipline, The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, Senge, (Doubleday: 1990)). T Tariff: a kind of tax is usually imposed on imported goods as a way of controlling trade between nations. When shipments of goods arrive at a border crossing or port, customs officers inspect the contents and charge a tax according to the tariff formula. Since the goods cannot continue on their way until the duty is paid, it is the easiest duty to collect, and the cost of collection is small (modified from Wikipedia). "Terminator" and "Traitor" seed: these are two controversial biotechnologies owned by major agrochemical companies, relating to genetically modified organisms. The former relates to modified seed of first generation crops that yield sterile seeds in the second generation. Traitor technology relates to "genetic use restriction technology" which requires farmers to apply a chemical to GM crops to be able to reactivate desired engineered traits. These technologies are intended to both limit the spread of GM plants, and to require farmers to pay for new seed every year, and in the latter case to pay for the required chemicals as well. Terms of trade (or TOT): in international economics and international trade, this refers to a country’s exports (price) divided by imports (price). An improvement in a nation's terms of trade is good for that country in the sense that it has to pay less for the products it imports. Terms of trade are therefore widely used as an instrument to measure the benefits derived by a nation from international trade. Tillage: the disturbance of soil to create the best conditions for seed germination and eventual plant growth. Topography: the physical features of land, including terrain relief. Transaction: is basically any sort of activity involving a change of money in an account (e.g. putting money into or withdrawing money from an account, adding interest to an account or deducting bank charges are all transactions). Transboundary breed: a breed that is found in several country. Transboundary species of the five major livestock species (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and chickens), have been developed for a century or more in intensive production systems, and have spread globally. They are generally bred to provide a single product for the market and require high levels of modern inputs and technologies. A very small number of international transboundary breeds accounts for an ever-increasing share of total global production of animal products. Yet it is only in North America and the Southwest Pacific that the number of transboundary breeds exceeds that of local breeds. Transboundary disease: as the name suggests, transboundary diseases can easily spread across national and international borders. However, the classification generally focuses on diseases that have a significant economic impact and the ability to disrupt national and international trade. Turgidity: the pressure inside a plant’s cells, that shows it to be growing strong and healthily. U Ungulate: Hoofed animals including domesticated livestock such as cows, goats, camels, horses that are herbivores with vegetable-based diets. Pigs are also ungulates, but have a mixed diet. Urbanisation: is defined by the United Nations as movement of people from rural to urban areas with population growth equating to urban migration. The United Nations projected that half of the world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008. V Value-based management: a structured approach to measure the performance of a firm's unit managers or products in terms of the net benefit they provide to shareholders. Value chain: refers to the entire system of production, processing and marketing of a particular product, from inception to the finished product. A value chain consists of a series of chain actors, linked together by flows of products, finance, information and services. Variety: genetic variation within a species. Vesicles: structures formed inside the plants' roots, by three of the five genera of arbuscular mycorrhizas. They look like an oval bag and most people believe that they are used for storing nutrients. Volatilisation of nutrients: chemical process through which gaseous forms of nutrients (e.g. nitrogen as ammonia) are directly lost from the soil and into the air. W Water-logging: saturation of the soil by groundwater such that agriculture is prevented or hindered. Watershed: Simply put, a watershed refers to an area of land where all of the water that is flowing over or under it drains into the same place. It includes rain (or snow melt), streams, groundwater, lakes, ponds, aquifers and wetlands. A watershed is separated from adjacent watersheds by a geographical barrier such as a hill or a mountain, which is known as a "water divide". Weed: unwanted plant that limits crop production potential. Wellbeing: this indicator of quality of life is difficult to measure as it depends on many things such as culture, level of education and personality, but at least one’s basic human needs, such as food, water and shelter need to be met, while also having certain access to health care, education and political freedoms are also part of wellbeing. Wilting point: the minimal point of soil moisture that a plant requires not to wilt. If moisture decreases below this point, a plant wilts and can no longer recover its turgidity (the pressure inside the plant cells) even when soil moisture is replenished. The wilting point is a constant (characteristic) of a particular soil. Worldview: A term for the overall perspective from which a person or group sees and interprets the world, and their collection of beliefs about life and the universe. It refers to assumptions and images that have an effect on people's motivations in life and in our case their farming goals. World view also refers to how people view their position in terms of gender equality, relationship with nature, etc. (For more on worldview: the Compas Network for Endogenous Development specifically devotes attention to this subject ). X Y Z Zero-grazing: confining ruminants such as cattle, sheep or goats in a stall and developing a cut-and-carry fodder system, which literally means that farmers must cut different grasses, leaves, etc. to feed to their cattle. Zoonosis: a disease that can be passed between vertebrate animals (wild or domestic) and people(also referred to as zoonotic diseases). The term was originally used to describe a group of diseases that humans could acquire from domestic animals; however, this term has since been expanded to also include all human diseases acquired from or (naturally) transmitted to any other vertebrate. |