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Lab Test Biochemistry Test Hematology Test Immunology & Serology Test Microbiology Test Molecular Test Detection Hormone Test Sputum Test | ||||||||
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Blood Tests A to Z ABO grouping and Rh typing Adrenal Function Panel Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Aldosterone Alpha 1 Antitrypsin Alpha Fetoprotein (AFP) Aluminum, serum Amino Acid Profile Amylase Anemia Panel Antinuclear Antibody (ANA) Screen Apolipoprotein A1 (Apo A1) Apolipoprotein Assessment (Apo A1 + B + Ratio) Arsenic, blood Aspirinworks™ B12 Status Panel Beta Carotene Beta HCG (quantitative) Bone-Specific Alkaline Phosphatase B-type natriuretic peptide Calcitonin, serum Cancer Antigen 125 Cancer Antigen 15-3 Cancer antigen 27.29 Candida Antibodies Carbohydrate Antigen 19.9 Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA) Cardiac PLUS Carnitine, Free and Total Catecholamines, Fractionated, plasma Celiac Disease Antibody Screen Ceruloplasmin Chemistry Panel & Complete Blood Count (CBC) Chromium, plasma Chromogranin A Circulating Tumor Cells, Breast Circulating Tumor Cells, Colon Circulating Tumor Cells, Prostate Coagulation/Thrombotic Risk Panel Copper CoQ10 (Coenzyme Q10) Cortisol Cortisol, 24 Hour Cortisol AM/PM C-Peptide C-Reactive Protein (CRP), Cardiac Creatine Kinase C-Telopeptide, serum Cystatin C Cytokine Panel Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Antibodies, IgG Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Antibodies, IgM D-Dimer Deoxypyridinoline (DPD) Cross Link Urine Test Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate (DHEA-S) Diabesity Panel Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) Energy Profile Epstein Barr Virus (EBV), Acute Infection ESR (Sedimentation Rate) Estradiol Estradiol, Sensitive Estrogens, Total Estrone Factor VIII Activity Fecal Occult Blood (Immunoassay) Female Basic Hormone Panel Female Comprehensive Hormone Panel Female Elite Panel Female Hormone Add-On Panel Female Hormone Replacement Panel Female Panel Ferritin Fibrinogen Food Safe Allergy Test Fructosamine FSH & LH Galectin-3 Galectin-3 with B-Type Natriuretic Peptide Galectin-3 with Propeptide of Brain Natriuretic Peptide (NT-proBNP) Gamma Glutamyl Transpeptidase (GGT) Glucose (fasting) Glucose/Insulin (fasting) Glucose, Insulin Resistance and VAP® Cholesterol Panel (Comprehensive) Glucose Tolerance Test (4 specimens) Glucose Tolerance Test with Insulin (8 specimens) Glucose, Two-hour Postprandial Glutathione Gluten Glycomark® Healthy Aging Panel (Basic) Healthy Aging Panel (Comprehensive) Heavy Metals Panel (Mercury, Arsenic, Aluminum) Helocobacter Pylori, IgG Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) Hepatitis B surface Antibody Hepatitis C virus Antibody Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), Quantitative, Real-time PCR Hepatitis Panel (A,B,C), Acute Homocysteine Human Epididymis Protein 4 (HE4) IGF-1 (Somatomedin-C) IL-6/IGF-1 Inflammation Panel Inflammatory Bowel Screen Insulin (fasting) Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein 3 (IGFBP-3) Interleukin 6 (IL6) Interleukin 8 (IL-8) Interleukin 1beta (IL-1beta) Iodine (Urine Test) Iodine, plasma Ionized Calcium Iron & Total Iron-Binding Capacity (TIBC) Lactate Dehydrogenase (LD) Isoenzymes Leptin Lipase Lipoprotein (a), Lp(a) Lithium, serum Magnesium Male Basic Hormone Panel Male Comprehensive Hormone Panel Male Elite Panel Male Hormone Add-On panel Male Hormone Modulating Profile Male Panel Mercury, blood Mitochondrial Function Panel N-Telopeptide, Cross-Links (NTx), serum Neuron-specific Enolase (NSE) NMR LipoProfile® Nutrient Panel Omega Score® Osteocalcin Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Performance Panel (Rx'd) Performance Panel (Rx’d PLUS) Performance Panel (Rx’d ULTIMATE) PLAC® Test (Lp-PLA2) Pregnenolone Progesterone Prolactin Propeptide of Brain Natriuretic Peptide (NT-proBNP) Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) Free with Total Ratio Prostate-specific Antigen (PSA), Ultrasensitive Prostatic Acid Phosphatase (PAP) Protein and Creatinine (Urine Test) Protein Electrophoresis, serum (SPE) PT/PTT RBC Folate RBC Magnesium Reticulocyte Count Reverse T3 Rheumatoid Factor (RF) Rx’d Performance Panel Rx’d PLUS Performance Panel Rx’d ULTIMATE Performance Panel Selenium Serotonin, Whole blood Sex Hormone Binding Globulin (SHBG) Sex Hormone Profile Sjögren’s Antibodies (Anti-SS-A/Anti-SS-B) T3, Reverse T3 (Tri-iodothyronine) T3 (Tri-iodothyronine), Free T3 Uptake T4 (Thyroxine) T4 (Thyroxine), Free Testosterone (Free with Total) Thyroglobulin (Tg) Thyroid Add-On Panel Thyroid Antibody Panel Thyroid Antithyroglobulin Antibody Thyroid Panel Thyroid Panel (Comprehensive) Thyroid Peroxidase Antibody Thyroxine-binding Globulin (TBG), serum T-Lymphocyte Helper/Suppressor Profile Transferrin Troponin I TSH Tumor Necrosis Factor - Alpha Urinalysis Urinary Hormone Profile (24 hour) Urinary Methylmalonic Acid VAP® VAP® PLUS Vitamin A Vitamin B1 Vitamin B1, Whole blood Vitamin B12 & Folate Vitamin B6 Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin K1 Weight Loss Panel (Basic) Weight Loss Panel (Comprehensive) Zinc | ||||||||
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Laboratory Here are further guidelines. | ||||||||
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Blood Chemistry Panel A blood chemistry panel is another common test used to evaluate a variety of components. Usually, it consists of about 7-25 tests. The information below is meant to provide an overview of these tests. Your doctor will counsel you regarding the results of your personal blood work and laboratory tests. Kidney Function Tests The creatinine blood test and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test are used to assess kidney function in people with lupus kidney disease (nephritis). Creatinine: Creatinine is produced by your muscles as they breakdown creatine, a substance involved in muscle contraction. Creatinine is formed at a constant rate in the body and excreted by the kidneys, so by evaluating the amount of creatinine in your blood, your doctor can determine how efficiently your kidneys are working. Creatinine levels are measured by taking a sample of blood from your vein; then, the concentration of creatinine in your blood is compared to a standard amount for your age and sex. Increased blood creatinine levels may indicate an increase in lupus involvement of the kidney. Other conditions, such as high blood pressure or diabetes, can also cause elevated creatinine levels. Sometimes individuals are asked to provide a 24-hour urine sample for further assessment. The combination of blood and urine samples can be used to evaluate a creatine clearance—how effectively your kidneys filter small molecules, such as creatinine, from your blood. In addition, since creatinine is usually removed from the blood at a constant rate, blood creatinine levels can be used as a standard by which doctors can compare other urine or blood tests. Your serum (blood) creatinine level can also be combined with your age, weight, and gender to evaluate your estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Glomeruli are tiny ball-shaped structures in your kidneys that help filter blood and prevent the loss of valuable substances, such as blood cells and proteins. The eGFR is an educated estimate of the amount of blood that is filtered per minute by your glomeruli and is often used to detect kidney damage. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN): The BUN test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. The liver produces nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH3) as it breaks down proteins into their constituent amino acids. From the liver, urea travels in your blood to the kidneys, which filter the urea and flush it from your body in the form of urine. To evaluate an individual’s BUN level, blood is drawn from the vein, and the concentration of urea nitrogen in the blood is evaluated and compared to a standard value for that person’s age range. Even though increased protein levels in a person’s diet can cause their blood urea nitrogen levels to increase, elevated BUN may suggest kidney involvement due to lupus or another condition such as dehydration that causes decreased blood flow to the kidneys. Low BUN levels are uncommon and are usually not as important; they can suggest certain conditions, such as malnutrition, over-hydration, or liver disease, but doctors usually use other tests to monitor these conditions. Blood Glucose (Sugar) Test Tests of blood glucose levels are performed to determine if an individual’s blood glucose is in normal range. This test helps to detect hyperglycemia (high blood sugar), hypoglycemia (low blood sugar), and diabetes (which can occur after long-term steroid therapy). Glucose is a simple sugar that your body gets from the food you eat. The cells of your body need glucose to obtain energy, and they cannot function without it. When we think of providing our bodies with energy, we usually think about movement and physical activity. However, glucose is also vital to the cells of your brain and central nervous system. The amount of glucose in your blood is controlled by a feedback mechanism involving two hormones, insulin and glucagon. These hormones work to ensure that your blood contains the right amount of glucose so that your cells—including those in your brain and central nervous system—can function correctly. When your body takes in glucose after a meal, insulin is secreted by cells in your pancreas (beta cells) in order to lower your blood glucose to the appropriate level. When your blood sugar gets too low, glucagon is secreted by alpha cells of the pancreas in order to raise glucose levels. Disruptions in this feedback mechanism can be harmful to your body. In people with diabetes, the body either does not make enough insulin or does not use it properly. High or low blood sugar levels caused by diabetes or other conditions can be serious if not kept in check. Blood glucose levels are usually evaluated when the patient is fasting, but they can also be taken at random, after a meal, or in a “challenge” test in which a person consumes a certain amount of glucose to challenge their system and track the way his/her body deals with glucose over time. Diabetics usually monitor their own blood glucose levels at home. Fasting Lipid Profile A lipid profile is a group of tests that includes measurements of total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol (“good cholesterol”), LDL-cholesterol (“bad cholesterol”), and triglycerides (fats), all of which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease. It is important that your doctors perform fasting lipid profiles if your cholesterol has been elevated, because people with lupus are at an increased risk for heart disease. In fact, cardiovascular disease—not lupus itself—is the number one cause of death in people with lupus. Furthermore, medications used in lupus treatment, especially corticosteroids such as prednisone, can raise blood pressure, blood glucose, cholesterol, and triglyceride levels, exacerbating the risk factors for cardiovascular disease in people with lupus. A fasting lipid profile is performed only when a patient is fasting (i.e., has not eaten since midnight of the previous night). Fasting ensures an accurate reading of your baseline total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, and triglyceride levels. However, please understand that it is alright to take your medications with water upon the day you are fasting—water does not affect the fasting lipid profile. Total Cholesterol: Cholesterol is a fatty substance made in the body and absorbed from certain foods that is essential in your body’s normal processes. It plays an important role in the membranes of your cells, is used to make hormones, and helps form the bile acids needed for your body to obtain nutrients from food. Your total cholesterol is a measurement of both types of cholesterol—LDL and HDL—and should be below 200 mg/dL. Total cholesterol levels above 240 mg/dL are considered dangerously high, especially in people with additional risk factors for cardiovascular disease, such as smoking, obesity, or family history. If your total cholesterol level is above 200 mg/dL, your doctor will most likely recommend that you follow a diet low in saturated fats and cholesterol and begin a moderate exercise regimen. If diet and exercise alone are not enough to control your cholesterol, she/he may prescribe a medication called a statin to help lower your cholesterol levels. Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL): Cholesterol circulates in the body in complex molecules called lipoproteins. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) are sometimes known as “bad cholesterol,” because they can deposit excess cholesterol in your arterial walls, restricting blood flow and causing a condition known as atherosclerosis. If arteries become blocked, a person can suffer heart attack, stroke, or other complications. LDL levels above 100 mg/dL are considered to be above the optimal range. If you have other risk factors for heart disease, such as a history of smoking, low HDL levels, high blood pressure, diabetes, or a personal or family history of cardiovascular disease, you should aim for lower LDL levels. High Density Lipoproteins (HDL): High density lipoproteins (HDL) are known as “good cholesterol” because they help to move cholesterol out of the body by carrying it to the liver where it is processed for excretion. HDL levels less than 40mg/dL are associated with an increased risk of heart disease, but a good HDL level is above 60mg/dL. Protein A comprehensive metabolic panel will also check the levels of certain proteins in your blood. Specifically, the test checks for albumin levels and total protein levels. Albumin: Albumin is a small protein made in the liver that constitutes the major protein in blood serum. Albumin performs many functions in your body, including nourishing tissues, transporting various substances through the body (hormones, vitamins, drugs, and ions), and preventing fluid from leaking out of your blood vessels. Albumin concentration will drop if a person suffers from liver damage, kidney disease, malnourishment, serious inflammation, or shock. Abumin levels allow your doctor to assess for or monitor liver or kidney disease due to lupus and other factors. Total Protein: In addition to albumin, your blood serum also contains a protein called globulin. In fact, globulin is actually a class of proteins that includes enzymes, antibodies, and hundreds of other proteins. A total protein test measures the combined amount of these proteins in your blood. An albumin to globulin (A/G) ratio is also computed. A person’s total protein level gives information about kidney damage, liver damage, and nutritional health. If your total protein falls outside of the normal level, your doctor will most likely order other tests to assess for liver or kidney function. Electrolytes Electrolytes are ions (electrically charged chemicals) in the blood and other body fluids. The concentration of electrolytes in your body depends on adequate intake of nutrients, proper absorption of nutrients by the intestines, and proper kidney and lung function. Abnormal electrolyte concentrations can indicate abnormalities in certain organs and bodily processes. For example, retention of sodium, bicarbonate, or calcium can indicate problems with kidney function. Hormones also help to control electrolyte concentrations, so abnormal electrolyte levels can also reveal certain hormone deficiencies or problems with certain hormone-regulating glands or organs. Some of the electrolytes measured in a comprehensive metabolic panel are explained below. Sodium (Na+): Sodium helps to regulate your body’s water balance and plays an important role in proper heart rhythm, blood pressure, blood volume, and brain and nerve function. Hypernatremia refers to having too much sodium in the blood; this can occur, for example, due to a high-salt diet. Too much sodium in your blood can cause high blood pressure, among other things. Hyponatremia refers to having too little sodium in the blood. Hyponatremia can cause confusion, restlessness, anxiety, weakness, and muscle cramps. Sodium levels in the blood are regulated by a hormone called aldosterone that is secreted by the adrenal glands. Aldosterone works to regulate sodium levels by increasing your kidneys’ reabsorption of sodium ions. Potassium (K+): Potassium plays a role in regulating the acid-base chemistry and water balance in your blood and body tissues. It also helps your body to synthesize proteins and make use of carbohydrates for fuel. Potassium is essential for normal muscle growth and helps sodium and calcium to maintain normal hearth rhythm and regulate the body’s water balance. Potassium also helps your muscles to contract and your nerves to send impulses. Potassium levels may be low if an individual is on a diuretic (fluid pill) such as hydrochlorothiazide (HCTC) or furosemide (Lasix). Blood potassium levels that are too high or low may lead to muscle weakness and cramping; very low levels may cause irregularities in heartbeat. Like sodium levels, potassium levels in the blood are regulated by aldosterone, which promotes potassium loss from your kidneys. Calcium (Ca2+): Most people recognize calcium as a part of bones and teeth, but calcium plays many other roles in the body, such as regulating heartbeat, transmitting nerve impulses, contracting muscles, and helping blood to clot properly. Blood calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone, which is secreted by the parathyroid gland, and calcitonin, which is secreted by the thyroid gland. Since lupus causes an increased risk of osteoporosis and corticosteroid (e.g., prednisone) use can elevate this risk, most people with lupus should take calcium and vitamin D supplements to help maintain adequate bone density. Medications called bisphosponates may be added to help with bone integrity if osteoporosis is detected. However, it is important that you realize that a blood calcium test measures the amount of calcium in the blood, not the bones. For an adequate measurement of bone health, you will need to obtain a DEXA scan every 2 years. Chloride (Cl-): Chloride ions help your body in maintaining proper pH and fluid balance. It also secreted by the stomach during digestion. Excessive sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea can cause chloride levels to drop. Low chloride levels may alter the pH of your blood, cause dehydration; they may also cause you to lose potassium. Carbon dioxide (CO2): This test measures the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood, which is present in the form of CO2, bicarbonate (HCO3-), and carbonic acid (H2CO3). These three forms are involved in the equilibrium that maintains the pH of your blood (7.35-7.45). Bicarbonate also works with other electrolytes to maintain a certain charge balance in your cells. The concentration of carbon dioxide in your blood is maintained by your lungs and kidneys. High or low levels of CO2 may prompt your doctor to order other tests to check your kidney and lung function, blood gases, or fluid retention. Liver Tests Certain tests can be performed as part of a comprehensive metabolic panel to give insight into the function of your liver. In addition, your doctor may order a test called a liver panel if she/he suspects that you have symptoms of a liver disorder. Usually these tests measure certain liver enzymes, namely alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine amino transferase (ALT), and aspartate amino transferase (AST). Bilirubin, a waste product of the liver that is stored in the gall bladder, is also measured. These values can be used by your doctor as a screening or monitoring tool for liver involvement. About 30-60% of lupus patients experience abnormal liver function tests; some have no symptoms of liver disorder. Generally, increased levels correlate with increased activity, but other factors can contribute to elevated levels of liver enzymes in the blood. For example, NSAIDs, acetaminophen (Tylenol), and aspirin can cause liver enzyme values to increase, especially in people with lupus. If your doctor notices abnormal liver enzyme levels, she/he may ask you to undergo additional tests for hepatitis. The liver enzymes and substances detected in a comprehensive metabolic panel are explained in more detail below. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme—a protein that helps to bring about chemical reactions in your body—found mainly in your liver and bones. High levels of ALP in the blood may indicate bone or liver abnormalities. If high ALP values are accompanied by high values of other liver enzymes and bilirubin, then the test suggests liver involvement. Certain ratios of liver enzymes can also indicate more specific conditions. Children usually have higher ALP levels than adults because their bones are still growing. Alanine amino transferase (ALT): Alanine amino transferase (ALT) is another enzyme found mainly in the liver. Smaller quantities can also be found in your kidneys, heart, and muscles. Levels of this enzyme are usually assessed in conjunction with readings for other liver enzymes to determine or monitor liver involvement. Very high levels of ALT may indicate acute hepatitis. Aspartate amino transferase (AST): Aspartame amino transferase (AST) is an enzyme found mainly in the liver, heart, and muscles. AST is released into the blood by injured liver or muscle cells but is used primarily to detect liver damage. [Another enzyme called creatine kinase (CK or CPK) is a better indicator of heart or muscle damage.] Levels of AST are usually viewed alongside other liver enzymes to assess for liver damage. Like ALT, very high levels of AST may suggest acute hepatitis. Bilirubin: Bilirubin is a yellow-brown substance formed when the liver breaks down old red blood cells. Too much bilirubin can be a sign that the liver cannot adequately remove bilirubin from the system due to blockage (e.g., gallstones, tumors), cirrhosis, or acute hepatitis. Elevated bilirubin can also indicate hemolytic anemia, a reduction in red blood cells due to abnormal breakdown of red blood cells (hemolysis). Hemolytic anemia can be inherited or acquired; about 10-15% of people with lupus develop autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Hemolytic anemia causes red blood cells to have a shortened lifespan in the blood, and since bilirubin is a product of old red blood cells, it accumulates in the body faster than it can be eliminated. [Other tests called the Coombs test, haptoglobin count, and reticulocyte count are better diagnostic tests for hemolytic anemia.] Several inherited conditions, such as Gilbert’s syndrome, can also cause a person to have too much bilirubin. These conditions may be serious or benign. Often a buildup of bilirbubin is accompanied by a yellowing of the skin called jaundice. Thyroid Tests The thyroid is a gland in your neck associated with your metabolism—the processes by which your body makes use of energy. Autoimmune thyroid disease can occur in people with lupus, as can other thyroid conditions. Usually, thyroid conditions cause the gland to release too much or too little hormone. Your doctor may order tests to detect the level of thyroid hormones in the blood, especially if you experience significant weight loss or gain, sweating, acute sensitivity to hot or cold, fatigue, or other symptoms. These tests can also help your doctor monitor the effectiveness of thyroid treatment. Tests for thyroid hormones are explained below in greater detail. Your doctor may request additional tests, such as tests for thyroid antibodies, to learn more about your condition. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) is a hormone released by the pituitary gland that signals the thyroid to release its hormones (T3 and T4) when levels in the blood get low. Together, TSH, T3, and T4 are part of a negative feedback loop that keeps levels of thyroid hormones constant in the blood. Abnormal levels of TSH in the blood can suggest a problem with the pituitary gland, such as a tumor, but this is unlikely. More often, high or low TSH levels indicate problems with the thyroid gland. The thyroid may not be responding to stimulation by TSH, or it may be releasing too much T3 and T4. Underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) is more common in lupus, but overactive thyroid (hyperthyroidism) can also occur. Both of these conditions can be dangerous if not properly treated. T4 and T3: Thyroid hormone contains thyroxine (T4, 90%) and triidothyronine (T3, 10%). The primary role of these substances is to regulate your body’s metabolism. Abnormal levels of thyroid hormone can indicate hypo- or hyperthyroidism. Cardiac Enzymes and Proteins Chemical Composition of the Human Body Elements in the Human Body Here's a look at the chemical composition of the human body, including element abundance and how each element is used. Elements are listed in order of decreasing abundance, with the most common element (by mass) listed first. Approximately 96% of body weight consists of only four elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and sulfur are macronutrients or elements the body needs in a significant amount. 1. Oxygen By mass, oxygen is the most abundant element in the human body. If you think about it, this makes sense, since most of the body consists of water or H2O. Oxygen accounts for 61-65% of the mass of the human body. Even though there are many more atoms of hydrogen in your body than oxygen, each oxygen atom is 16 times more massive than a hydrogen atom. Uses Oxygen is used for cellular respiration. 2. Carbon All living organisms contain carbon, which forms the basis for all of the organic molecules in the body. Carbon is the second most abundant element in the human body, accounting for 18% of body weight. Uses All organic molecules (fats, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids) contain carbon. Carbon also is found as carbon dioxide or CO2. You inhale air that contains about 20% oxygen. Air you exhale contains much less oxygen, but is rich in carbon dioxide. Here's a look at the chemical composition of the human body, including element abundance and how each element is used. Elements are listed in order of decreasing abundance, with the most common element (by mass) listed first. Approximately 96% of body weight consists of only four elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and sulfur are macronutrients or elements the body needs in a significant amount. 1. Oxygen If you think about it, this makes sense, since most of the body consists of water or H2O. Oxygen accounts for 61-65% of the mass of the human body. Even though there are many more atoms of hydrogen in your body than oxygen, each oxygen atom is 16 times more massive than a hydrogen atom. Uses Oxygen is used for cellular respiration. 2. Carbon Carbon is the second most abundant element in the human body, accounting for 18% of body weight. Uses All organic molecules (fats, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids) contain carbon. Carbon also is found as carbon dioxide or CO2. You inhale air that contains about 20% oxygen. Air you exhale contains much less oxygen, but is rich in carbon dioxide. 3. Hydrogen Hydrogen accounts for 10% of the mass of the human body. Uses Since around 60% of your body weight is water, much of the hydrogen exists in water, which functions to transport nutrients, remove wastes, lubricate organs and joints, and regulate body temperature. Hydrogen is also important in energy production and use. The H+ ion can be used as a hydrogen ion or proton pump to produce ATP and regulate numerous chemical reactions. All organic molecules contain hydrogen in addition to carbon. 4. Nitrogen Approximately 3% of the mass of the human body is nitrogen. Uses Proteins, nucleic acids, and other organic molecules contain nitrogen. Nitrogen gas is found in the lungs, since the primary gas in air is nitrogen. 5. Calcium Calcium accounts for 1.5% of human body weight. Uses Calcium is used to give the skeletal system its rigidity and strength. Calcium is found in bones and teeth. The Ca2+ ion is important for muscle function. 6. Phosphorus About 1.2% to 1.5% of your body consists of phosphorus. Uses Phosphorus is important for bone structure and is part of the primary energy molecule in the body, ATP or adenosine triphosphate. Most of the phosphorus in the body is in the bones and teeth. 7. Potassium Potassium makes up 0.2% to 0.35% of the adult human body. Uses Potassium is an important mineral in all cells. It functions as an electrolyte and is particularly important for conducting electrical impulses and for muscle contraction. 8. Sulfur Sulfur's abundance is 0.20% to 0.25% in the human body. Uses Sulfur is an important component of amino acids and proteins. It's present in keratin, which forms skin, hair, and nails. It's also needed for cellular respiration, allowing cells to use oxygen. 9. Sodium Approximately 0.10% to 0.15% of your body mass is the element sodium. Uses Sodium is an important electrolyte in the body. It is an important component of cellular fluids and is needed for the transmission of nerve impulses. It helps regulate fluid volume, temperature, and blood pressure. 10. Magnesium The metal magnesium comprises about 0.05% of human body weight. Uses About half of the body's magnesium is found in the bones. Magnesium is important for numerous biochemical reactions. It helps regulate heart beat, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels. It is used in protein synthesis and metabolism. It is needed to support proper immune system, muscle, and nerve function. Is your pH balanced? Is your hormone level balanced? Is your blood sugar balanced? Why do we crave for sugary foods when under stress? Why do we gain weight while on diet? Is your pH balanced? pH or acid/alkaline balance is the most important aspect of a balanced body chemistry. What is pH? Using definition from http://www.qureshiuniversity.com “pH” is the term used to measure alkalinity or acidity of a solution. pH ranged from 1 -14. A pH of 7 is neutral. Higher than 7 means the solution is alkaline and lower than 7 denotes acidity. Why is pH balance important? Our body works best when saliva and urine have a slightly acid pH level, even though the pH of the blood is maintained at about 7.4 or slightly alkaline. When the body has a more balanced pH, you avoid disease and illness , you experiences less fatigue , feel better , sleep better and maintain proper body weight and metabolism, your digestion will improve and you assimilate vitamins and nutrients better. Can a person end up too acidic?. Over-acidity may be caused by the acid residue of the foods which we have eaten. This is true even of the “sour-tasting” fruits like lemons and grapefruits. Protein foods like meat, dairy, soy and eggs leave an acid residue when digested, and starchy foods like cereals, breads and a few starchy vegetables also leave an acid residue. If the body is too acidic, it has to 'borrow' minerals from vital organs and bones to buffer the acid and safely remove it from the body. Over a period of time, it will weaken the entire body system and causes illnesses. Nutrients from food cannot be absorbed properly once the body's pH balance is turned off. This affected important minerals, which are important for many body functions including enzyme production and cellular metabolism. Taking in supplements may not be able to solve the deficiency problems if the pH balance is not right. Fruits and vegetables will do more for you than balance your pH. From a research, it was found that certain chemicals found in brightly colored fruits and vegetables helps to protect you against cancer and other diseases. It will also keep our skin younger looking and best of all, fruits and vegetables tend to be lower in calories than grains and meats which is a real bonus for those of us who are trying to lose weight or keep from gaining. Can a person end up too alkaline? Limiting diets to only fruit and vegetables may lead to over alkalinity. It occurs when the body is so toxic it is no longer able to eliminate the acids and they start to build up in the system. Over alkalinity may take longer time to correct than over acidity. Some examples of acid foods listed in http://user.icx.net/~drherb/chemistry.html are most nuts except those mentioned below, overcooked fruits and veggies , dairy products (cheese, eggs, milk, etc) , white meat (fish), red meat (beef), spicy foods (garlic, hot peppers, onions) Some raw fruits and vegetables are acid in stomach and slightly alkaline producing in the tissues (apricots, strawberries, raisins, pears, bananas, papayas). Whereas, alkaline ash foods includes raw fruits except those mentioned above , some dried fruits, some frozen fruits, most vegetables , raw almonds , raw cashews, oats , soybeans , grapefruit, pineapple, oranges, and lemon. These form acid in the stomach but form alkaline in the tissues. A change in diet is necessary to correct the pH value. Supplements may be needed if a change in diet is insufficient to correct the pH. Calcium, magnesium and trace minerals, as well as enzyme supplements help the body digest foods. According to http://www.drlark.com/nc/healthy_bones_tricks.asp, sodium bicarbonate also helps to prevent our body from using minerals from our bones to balance its pH and it also helps with digestion and the ability to withstand respiratory illnesses. IS YOUR HORMONE LEVEL BALANCED ? What is the function of hormones? They function as messengers of the body which is responsible in cellular communication. Hormones signal the body to grow, to reproduce and to carry out all the functions responsible for metabolism of energy as well as cellular replacement and repair. There are two types of hormones: anabolic hormones which build up cellular structures and catabolic hormones which break down cellular structures and convert them into energy. Hormones are secreted by various glands in our bodies in the amounts required for optimum health. The pancreas, which will be described below, secrete hormone insulin (an example of anabolic hormone) and the thyroid gland produces the thyroid hormones (catabolic hormone) responsible for regulating metabolic rate. Our body continuously strives to keep these hormones in balance. If there is too much of one type of anabolic hormone, the body will produce fewer of the other anabolic hormones to compensate. Too many stress hormones will affect influence the overall balance of the other hormones. However production of certain hormone like insulin is one of the problems which we face today. This is because our diets nowadays mostly composed of carbohydrates (sugary foods). Eating fewer carbohydrates and eliminating refined carbohydrates like sugar and white flour products altogether helps to restore the hormonal balance. A high protein and high fat diet is optimal for balancing hormones, thus preventing heart disease and help maintaining ideal weight. IS YOUR BLOOD SUGAR BALANCED ? Our brains need a constant supply of energy in the form of glucose (a simple form of sugar) or the amino acid. The body is 'programmed' to keep the level of glucose constant in the blood. Too much sugar will result in a coma but low sugar level will cause in a condition called insulin shock. How do the body balances blood sugar? Pancreas provide a good surge of a type of hormone called insulin, which quickly brings the blood sugar down. In fact, pancreas often brings the blood sugar down too low which then starts the hunger cycle all over again. If the person eats protein in response to the hunger, the amino acid is available to nourish the brain in place of glucose. But, if the person eats sugary or starchy foods, too much sugar will then be released into the bloodstream. In response to this, the hormone insulin is the released by pancreas to convert excess glucose into glycogen for storage. Each surge of insulin causes more sugar to be stored as glycogen, which is then converted into body fat. As a result of low blood sugar, it triggers more cravings for sugar, since the body knows that without blood sugar the brain will die. This is why we can get addicted to sugary foods. Diabetes is a condition in which the blood sugar remains high due to little production of insulin. This is caused either by the body lacking the raw material to produce insulin or the pancreas can no longer work properly. Low blood sugar cycle could result in this type of condition. Pancreas become overworked from having to provide continual surges of insulin which then led to its malfunction. Diet which is high in sugar and starches and low in protein can cause in a deficient of amino acid which is an important raw material for insulin production. WHY DO WE "BINGE" ON CHOCOLATE WHEN UNDER STRESS? Our brains produce a number of potent chemicals called neurotransmitters. Four main neurotransmitters or groups of neurotransmitters virtually dictate all our moods: dopamine and nor epinephrine are energizers, Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) is a sedative, Endorphins are pain killers and Serotonin stabilizes moods, focuses the mind and promotes sleep. Neurotransmitters are made from amino acids. Amino acids are the end result of protein digestion and if we lack sufficient enzymes for digesting our protein , we will not have the necessary amino acids to make the neurotransmitters necessary for optimal brain function. Deficiency in any one of the above transmitters may caused us to be depressed, anxious, or in pain. In short, we don't feel good and may turn to sweets, alcohol, cigarettes or even drugs to make us feel better. People who make sufficient neurotransmitters under normal circumstances may become deficient under stress because stress causes neurotransmitters to be used up very quickly. Hence, to feel better, stressors often turn to sweets or cigarettes. This is why many people "binge" on sugary foods like chocolate when their neurotransmitters are depleted through stressful events. This addiction to sweets often causes weight gain. This is why many people may suddenly gain weight after going through a stressful period in their lives. WHY DO WE GAIN WEIGHT WHILE ON DIET? Once a person goes on restricted calorie diets, the body interpret this as starvation. This diet cause a lot of stress to the body and as a result, adrenal glands begin to release adrenal hormone, which causes the glycogen that was stored during the cycles of insulin release to be converted back to glucose. After a period of time, the adrenal glands will become overworked, especially if the body isn't taking in the necessary nutrients (protein and B vitamins) to replenish it and keep it functioning optimally. The person on the diet may then feels worse and choose to quit the diet and revert to previous addictive eating patterns and this situation causes the person to gain back the weight he/she had lost and sometimes, gain more weight than before. The lack of food during dieting also puts the body into an "economy mode" state. Dieting encourages the body to become more efficient at conserving food, which can lead to further weight gain down the road. Metabolic processes begin to slow down and all available food is hoarded by the storage systems of the body. Restrictive diets that deprive the body of necessary calories or nutrients can be so stressful that they actually cause weight problems where none previously existed. This is one of the reasons why we, instead of losing, gain more weight while on diet. | ||||||||
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Laboratory Here are further guidelines. | ||||||||
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Serology Laboratory A serology blood test is performed to detect and measure the levels of antibodies as a result of exposure to a particular bacteria or virus. When we are exposed to bacteria or viruses (antigens), the body’s immune system produces specific antibodies against the organism. Antibody levels (antibody titer) help physicians to determine whether an infection occurred recently, or occurred years ago. Hepatitis Serology Test Hepatitis Serology (HepA, HepB, HepC) is a relatively complex set of tests to determine past infection, current infection, immunity and infectivity relating to the Hepatitis viruses. These viruses all affect the liver, but behave quite differently from each other. Hepatitis Serology (HepA, HepB, HepC) is a relatively complex set of tests to determine past infection, current infection, immunity and infectivity relating to the Hepatitis viruses. These viruses all affect the liver, but behave quite differently from each other. How the Test is Performed Hepatitis Serology (HepA, HepB, HepC) is a blood test which requires a few millilitres of blood from a vein. Any of the three common hepatitis viruses can be tested for individually – for example only Hepatitis B serology – depending on the reasons for the test. Medical Conditions and Symptoms Hepatitis Serology may be requested by your doctor for a number of reasons, including: Screening test to determine hepatitis status, for example prior to childbirth, dialysis or a surgical procedure Investigation of jaundice (yellow skin or eyes) or abnormal Liver Function Tests (LFTs) Checking immunity to Hepatitis B, for healthcare workers or those with occupational (or non-occupational) exposure to body fluids with infective potential – eg a needlestick injury Test Results Explained Hepatitis Serology results will usually give an indication of previous infection, as well as current infection, and give an indication of immunity (antibodies) to future exposure, in the case of Hepatitis B. Interpretation of these results can be quite complex, but the laboratory performing the test usually gives a short comment or explanation on the report. What is Forensic Serology? Share on facebookShare on twitterShare on linkedinShare on emailMore Sharing ServicesCriminal Justice Forensic serology is the study and examination of bodily fluids such as blood, semen, saliva, perspiration and fecal matter at a crime scene. Serologists with forensic science degrees use serological data to identify the presence of bodily fluids at crime scenes and associate them with a person or group. Bodily fluids are divided into two categories: excreted and secreted fluids. Excreted fluids include feces, vomit and skin oil (perspiration), while secreted fluids include blood, plasma, semen, saliva and urine. These bodily fluids can be used to identify crime victims or suspects at crime scenes. To use bodily fluids as evidence for a crime, forensic scientists must first take samples of fluids present at crime scenes. To do this, forensic scientists swab, bag and collect the fluid samples in a vial to bring back to the crime lab. At the lab, the scientists run a series of tests on the fluid, first to determine if it is in fact a bodily fluid and if so, what type. If the bodily fluid is confirmed, further tests can identify whom the sample came from. Once evidence is identified, forensic scientists or serologists take careful notes. The type, quantity and packaging of the evidence must be recorded, along with a description, notes, and sometimes diagrams or photos to show how and where the evidence was found. Perhaps the most important part of the analysis is the detailed notes on test outcomes and findings, which are often used in court. Using serology to test blood samples To some, blood is regarded as the most significant evidence in criminal justice today. If detectives can present blood evidence from a crime, it can ruin a suspect’s alibis and self-defense claims. Even when criminals attempt to hide or clean blood at crime scenes, technology in forensic science still makes it possible for blood to be detected. If blood has been identified at a crime, forensic scientists take a sample back to the crime lab. They first confirm the fluid and work to verify if the blood is from a human or animal. Once human blood is confirmed, forensic scientists test to see whom it came from. Though sometimes blood splatter or patterns can allude to a certain scene or event, blood evidence holds more weight when it can be tied to an individual. There are three main categories of blood testing used in forensic serology and discussed in online criminal justice programs: Conventional Serological Analysis Using conventional serological analysis, forensic scientists analyze the proteins, enzymes and antigens found in blood. This method of testing is not as conclusive as DNA tests and only works if there is a large sample size to analyze. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) DNA Analysis RFLP analysis is the examination of DNA existing in the white blood cells. This test also requires a large sample size, but is the most accurate,making the results powerful evidence. This type of blood testing has been used in many of criminal cases and has withstood scrutiny brought against the validity of the results in court. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) DNA Analysis PRC DNA analysis is often used when forensic scientists are working with a small sample size, perhaps from a small drop of blood on the floor of a crime scene. This analysis is performed by repetition of the small DNA sample; copied DNA can then be used to determine whom the blood came from. PRC analysis is not as widely acknowledged as RFLP tests, but it has been used in many cases where other blood tests could not be performed. Though blood is found at a variety of types of crime, it is not the only bodily fluid that can be tested through forensic serology. Semen, saliva, perspiration, urine and fecal matter can also be used to identify subjects at crime scenes, but aren’t found as often. These types of bodily fluids are only found in certain types of crimes, and once collected can be more difficult to associate with a person. Serology is a fascinating science that helps the criminal justice system solve crimes every day. Through the collection and study of bodily fluids at crime scenes, forensic scientists are able to link the evidence to suspects or victims, which has proven to be authoritative evidence in court. Without serology, solving crimes would be much more difficult, making the practice a vital piece of the criminal justice puzzle. Immunology and Serology What are immunology and serology?Immunology is the study of the body's immune system and its functions and disorders. Serology is the study of blood serum (the clear fluid that separates when blood clots). Immunology and serology laboratories focus on the following:
Immunology and serology tests
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